History Final

Cognitive Revolution

The time (~70,000 years ago) when Homo sapiens began thinking symbolically, creating complex language, and cooperating in large groups.

Agricultural Revolution

(~10,000 years ago) Humans shifted from foraging to farming. Increased food production, led to settlements, population growth, but also inequality and harder labor.

Early Gestational Age at Birth

Human babies are born less developed compared to other animals, needing longer care, likely due to evolutionary trade-offs from larger brains and narrow hips.

Broad context

Big-picture historical background that helps explain why something happened (e.g., global trends, long-term causes).

Narrow context

Immediate situation or local events surrounding a specific historical moment.

Common Era (CE)

Calendar system referring to years after the traditional birth of Jesus (same as AD, but secular).

Before Common Era (BCE)

Years before the traditional birth of Jesus (same as BC, but secular).

Natural selection

The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce.

Artificial selection

When humans intentionally breed plants or animals for desired traits.

Paleolithic Era

The Old Stone Age (before agriculture); humans lived as foragers and hunters.

Neolithic Era

The New Stone Age; began with the Agricultural Revolution and domestication of plants and animals.

Neanderthals

Close human relatives in Europe and western Asia, now extinct.

Denisovans

Another extinct human species known mostly from genetic evidence.

Megafauna extinction

Large animals went extinct (possibly due to human hunting and climate change).

Austronesian migration

The last major human migration; settled islands in the Pacific using boats and navigation.

Surplus

Extra food beyond immediate needs, enabling trade, population growth, and specialization.

Egalitarian

Societies where people had roughly equal status and resources.

Domestication

Taming and breeding plants/animals for human use.

Broad spectrum diet

A diet using many plant and animal sources; typical of foragers.

Global warming

Natural post-Ice Age warming that made agriculture possible.

Fertile Crescent

Region in the Middle East where farming first began.

Maize

Early form of corn, first domesticated in Mesoamerica.

Selective adaptation

Traits that become more common in a species because they offer an advantage.

Diffusion

Spread of agricultural ideas or technologies without mass movement of people.

Migration

Movement of people to new areas, often bringing agriculture with them.

Bantu migrations

Movement of African peoples who spread farming and languages across southern Africa.

Famine

Severe food shortage leading to hunger and death.

Textiles

Woven or knitted cloth, often made from plant or animal fibers.

Secondary products revolution

Using animals for more than meat (e.g., milk, wool, labor).

Pastoral societies

Groups that raised livestock and moved seasonally.

Nomadic people

Communities that moved from place to place instead of settling permanently.

Chiefdoms

Societies led by hereditary leaders; more hierarchy than tribes but less than states.

Gilgamesh

Legendary king of Uruk; part-god, part-man; seeks immortality.

Enkidu

Wild man created to balance Gilgamesh; becomes his friend.

Shamhat

Temple prostitute who civilizes Enkidu through intimacy and food.

Humbaba

Monster guardian of the Cedar Forest; defeated by Gilgamesh and Enkidu.

Uruk

Ancient Mesopotamian city ruled by Gilgamesh.

Primary source

Firsthand evidence from the past (e.g., artifacts, diaries, photos).

Secondary source

Interpretation or analysis of history by someone not present (e.g., textbooks, documentaries).

Specialization

When people focus on specific jobs or tasks, made possible by surplus food.

Civilization

Complex societies with cities, government, social classes, writing, and often monumental architecture.

Sumer

One of the first civilizations, located in Mesopotamia, known for city-states and cuneiform writing.

Standardized weights

Tools used for fair trade and taxation; sign of organized economy.

Irrigation

Controlling water for agriculture, which required coordination and leadership.

Mandate of Heaven

Chinese belief that rulers are chosen by heaven but can lose favor due to bad behavior or failure.

Density theory

States formed in areas where population pressure led to competition and the need for centralized power.

Code of Hammurabi

Babylonian legal code with harsh punishments; reflected social hierarchy.

Free commoners

Non-enslaved, working-class people in early civilizations (farmers, craftsmen, etc.).

Slavery

Forced labor system where individuals are treated as property.

Patriarchy

System where men hold power in society and families.

Warrior class

Elite group in society valued for military skill and often given privileges.

Demotion of the goddess

As patriarchy grew, female deities became less important or powerful.

States

Organized political systems with authority over territory and people.

Coercion

Use of force or threats to gain compliance, often used by early states.

Monopolization of the right to violence

Idea that only the state can legally use force (e.g., armies, police).

Writing

Used for recordkeeping, communication, and propaganda in early civilizations.

Propaganda

Info used by rulers to promote their legitimacy and power.

Calendars

Tools for organizing time, important for agriculture and religious rituals.

Qin Shihuangdi, First Emperor

Unified China in 221 BCE, built the Great Wall, and used Legalism.

Brahmanism

Early form of Hinduism rooted in Vedic traditions and rituals performed by priests (Brahmins).

Vedas

Ancient Hindu sacred texts composed in Sanskrit; foundational to Hindu beliefs.

Brahman

The ultimate, unchanging divine reality in Hinduism.

Karma

The moral law of cause and effect; actions influence future outcomes.

Moksha

Liberation from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and unity with Brahman.

Samsara

The cycle of death and rebirth.

Dharma

Moral duty, varies by caste, age, and gender.

Varna and Jati

Social class (varna = broad categories; jati = specific subgroups) in the caste system.

Endogamy

Marrying within one's own social or caste group.

Varnas

Four main social classes in Hindu society (priests, warriors, farmers, laborers).

Dalits

"Untouchables," outside the caste system, often discriminated against.

Bardo

In Tibetan Buddhism, an intermediate state between death and rebirth.

Nirvana

In Buddhism, the end of suffering and release from samsara.

Buddha

"The Enlightened One"; Siddhartha Gautama, founder of Buddhism.

4 Noble Truths

Core Buddhist teachings on suffering and how to end it.

Buddhist Enlightenment

Realization of truth that ends suffering and leads to Nirvana.

Confucius

Chinese philosopher who emphasized order, morality, and proper relationships.

Five key relationships

Ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, older brother-younger brother, friend-friend.

Filial piety

Respect and duty toward one's parents and ancestors.

The Analects

Collection of sayings and ideas attributed to Confucius.

Warring States Period

Violent time before China was unified; many small kingdoms fought for power.

Qin Dynasty

First imperial dynasty of China; used Legalist ideas to control people.

Shang Yang

Legalist thinker who helped strengthen the Qin state through strict laws.

Han Feizi

Legalist philosopher who emphasized laws over morality.

Han Dynasty

Chinese dynasty that followed Qin; blended Legalism with Confucianism.

Athens

Greek city-state known for democracy and culture.

Sparta

Greek city-state focused on military strength and discipline.

Citizenship

In Greece, a privileged status limited to free adult males (esp. in Athens).

Democracy

Government by the people; in Athens, citizens voted directly.

Lot and Lottery

Athenian method of selecting leaders by random draw.

Direct and Indirect Democracy

Direct = people vote on laws; Indirect = people elect reps to make laws.

Ostracism

Athenian practice of voting to exile a person seen as a threat to democracy.

Library of Alexandria

Famous ancient library in Egypt; center of learning, science, and culture.

Theater of Dionysus

Outdoor Greek theater in Athens dedicated to Dionysus; birthplace of Western drama.

Terra Cotta Warriors

Life-size clay soldiers buried with China's first emperor (Qin Shihuangdi) to protect him in the afterlife.

Roman Aqueducts

Engineering marvels that carried water into cities using gravity.

Persian Qanat System

Underground irrigation tunnels in ancient Persia; allowed farming in arid regions.

Zoroastrianism

Ancient Persian religion emphasizing dualism (good vs evil), free will, and a final judgment.

Ahura Mazda

Supreme god of Zoroastrianism; represents truth and light.

Angra Mainyu

Evil spirit in Zoroastrianism, enemy of Ahura Mazda.

Free will

Belief that people can choose between good and evil.