psych test 2

What does Developmental Psychology study?

How humans change over the life span from conception until death. The three domains are Physical, Socio-emotional, and Cognitive.

What is the role of the environment in the brain development of infants?

Adverse (unfavorable) brain development can be caused by poverty, a stressful living condition, poor nutrition, or exposure to toxins. Negative effects can be reduced through enrichment programs.

What reflexes are infants born with?

Rooting reflex, Sucking reflex, Grasping reflex.

How do motor skills develop?

Maturation is the physical development of the brain and body that prepares an infant for voluntary movement.

How do senses develop?

An infant obtains information from the world by hearing, seeing, smelling, tasting, and perceiving touch. Some sensory skills are more fully developed at birth: prefer sweet tastes, can hear well, poor vision.

What is attachment?

A fundamental need to form strong connections with caretakers.

Secure Attachment

Comfortable exploring easily comforted.

Avoidant attachment

Ignores the caregiver, little emotional response.

Ambivalent attachment

Clingy, upset when caregiver leaves but not easily comforted. Not willing to explore.

What is Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

Children develop through schemas (mental frameworks) using assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Fit new info into existing schemas.

Accomodation

Change schemas for new info.

What are the different stages of Piaget’s theory

Sensorimotor (0-2), Preoperational (2-7), Concrete operational (7-12), Formal operational (12+)

Sensorimotor

Ages 0-2. Learn through senses/actions. Object permanence develops.

Preoperational

Ages 2-7. Use language and symbols. Egocentrism, centration, not logical.

Concrete operational

Ages 7-12. Logical thinking develops. Understands conservation.

Formal operational

Ages 12+. Abstract thinking. Hypothesis testing.

What is the Sociocultural Theory of Development?

A theory developed by Vygotsky. Development is shaped by culture and social interactions. Learning happens through language and guidance (scaffolding) from more knowledgeable people.

How does language develop?

1. Cooing

2. Babbling

3. One-word stage

4. Telegraphic speech

Also includes overregularization (applying grammar rules incorrectly) like “goed”.

What are changes that are seen in the brain during adolescence?

Synaptic pruning/refinement, increase in gray matter, the frontal cortex is not fully developed, limbic system (emotion) is more active than decision-making areas.

What are changes seen in social and emotional development during adolescence?

Development of identity, influenced by culture, beliefs, and personal traits. Key conflict: identity vs. role confusion.

What is Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development?

Development happens in 8 stages, each with a conflict.

Stage 1 Trust vs. Mistrust

Ages 0-1, trust caregivers

Stage 2 Autonomy vs. Shame

Ages 1-3, independence

Stage 3 Initiative vs. guilt

Ages 3-6, taking initiative.

Stage 4 Industry vs. Inferiority

Ages 7-11, competence

Stage 5 Identity vs. Role Confusion

Ages 12-18, identity

Stage 6 Intimacy vs. Isolation

Ages 19-29, relationships

Stage 7 Generativity vs. Stagnation

Ages 30-64, contribute to society

Stage 8 Integrity vs. Despair

Ages 65+, reflect on life.

What are different parenting styles?

Neglectful, Permissive, Authoritarian, Authoritative

Neglectful

Low demand, low responsiveness.

Permissive

Low demand, high responsiveness.

Authoritarian

High demand low responsiveness.

Authoritative

High demand, high responsiveness (best outcomes)

What is Kohberg's Levels of Moral Reasoning?

Preconventional, Conventional, Post conventional

Preconventional

Based on self-interest and consequences.

Conventional

Based on laws and social approval.

Postconventional

Based on abstract principles and values.

Emerging adulthood

Ages 18-25. Transition to independence.

Early/Middle adulthood

Decline in muscle, bone density, senses

Late adulthood

Focus on meaningful experiences. Cognitive decline. Risk of dementia/Alzheimer’s.

What is learning?

A change in behavior resulting from experience.

What are key changes in the brain seen with learning.

Learning causes physical changes in synaptic connections between neurons.

What is non-associative learning?

Learning about a single stimulus in the environment.

Habituation

decreased response over time

Sensitization

Increased response over time

What is classical conditioning?

A learned response where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already produces a response.

How does classical conditioning develop?

By repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

US (Unconditioned Stimulus)

naturally causes a response

UR (Unconditioned Response)

natural, unlearned response

Neutral stimulus

no response at first

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

previously neutral, now triggers a response

CR (Conditioned Response)

learned response

Acquisition of Classical Conditioning

Gradual association between conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

Extinction of Classical Conditioning

Conditioned response weakens when conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with unconditional stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

Extinguished response returns after time.

Stimulus Generalization

similar stimuli produce the same response

Stimulus Discrimination

ability to distinguish between similar stimuli

What is higher order conditioning

Pairing a new neutral stimulus with an already established conditioned stimulus.

How is classical conditioning related to fear and phobias

Fear can be learned through association (ex: Little Albert experiment). Phobias are exaggerated learned fears.

Couterconditioning

pair a fear with something positive

Exposure therapy

gradual exposure and relaxation

What is conditioned taste adversion?

Learning to avoid a food after one negative experience.

What is operant conditioning?

Learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences.

What was Thorndike’s Law of Effect?

Behaviors with satisfying outcomes are repeated, and behaviors with negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated.

What are reinforcers?

A stimulus that increases behavior.

Primary reinforcer

basic needs (food, water)

Secondary reinforcer

Learned (money, rewards)

What is punishment?

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding something

Negative punishment

Removing something

Positive reinforcement example

Add reward to increase behavior

Negative reinforcement example

Remove something unpleasant to increase behavior.

positive punishment example

Add something unpleasant to decrease behavior

negative punishment example

Remove something to decrease behavior

What increases vs. decreases behavior

Reinforcement increases behavior, and punishment decreases behavior.

Continuous reinforcement

reward every time (fast learning)

Partial reinforcement

Reward sometimes (more realistic, longer lasting)

Fixed reinforcement

Predictable

Variable reinforcement

Unpredictable

Interval (timed) reinforcement

based on time

ratio (action) reinforcement

based on number of responses

Fixed interval reinforcement example

paycheck

Variable interval reinforcement example

pop quiz

Fixed ratio reinforcement example

paid per task

Variable (random) ratio (action) reinforcement example

Slot machine (highest response rate)

Variable schedule learning curve

Steady, high responding

Fixed (predictable) schedule learning curves

Bursts of responding with pauses

What are the conditions needed for punishment to be effective?

Consistent, immediate, intense from the start, not signaled

Punishment vs reinforcement effectiveness

Reinforcement is generally more effective and builds desired behavior. Punishment is hard to apply correctly and only stops one behavior.

Shaping

reinforcing behaviors closer and closer to the desired behavior.

Behavior modification

using operant conditioning to replace unwanted behaviors

What is latent learning?

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is shown later.

Observational learning

learning by watching others

Modeling

imitating behavior

Vicarious conditioning

learning from others being rewarded or punished

How is information processed in the brain?

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Encoding

processing information

Storage

Keeping information over time