Psych 5-8

study cards

Sensation

Sensation

the detection of signals in the environment by sensory receptors in the body

Perception

the organization and interpretation of signals by sensory receptors information

SIgnal Detection Theory

studies the extent to which we notice things based on a sensory process and a decision process

Absolute threshold

minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a sensory input

Just Noticeable Difference

measures how much change is necessary for us to notice change has taken place

Sensory Adaptation

filters out unimportant information, like clothes on your body.

Selective Attention

focuses on what is important, directs attention towards one stream of stimulation

Inattentional Blindness

So focused on making reality in one way, assumptions drive perceptional gaps, ignore other things.

Bottom-up processing

Starts from raw stimulation, goes up to complex perception.

Perceptual set

Once we understand what something is, we become locked in to what our expectations say something is

Top down processing

Use our previous knowledge and expectations to organize perceptual information

Synaesthesia

Occurs in a break down of top-down and bottom-up processing, cross talk between different senses

Stroop effect

Highlights how automatic processing can interfere with other processing. When a color is spelled out but the color of a word is different

Example: Red

Rods

sensory receptors in retina that react to light or no light

Cones

sensory receptors in retina that react to color

Fovea

central area of eye, concentrated in cones, peripheral vision drops off in cones and rods

Secotic Movements

small eye movements, taking in imagery in space that isn’t in fovea, which get’s stored in sensory memory.

Experienced Perception

what we experience is the end point of the process of perception

4 Short cuts in Perceptual organization

Similarity, Continuity, Proximity, Closure

Binocular Cues

Information available because we have two eyes

Monocular Cues

Information available to us because we have one eyes

Retinal Disparity

the difference between the images that reach each eye

Ambiguous figures

highlight bidirectional nature of top-down processing or bottom-up processing

Gestalt Psychologists

wholistic perception and understanding, with ignorance of specific details.

Classical Condtioning

Learning by association

Operant Conditioning

Learning by consequences

Observational Learning

an extension of operant conditioning which also includes internal factors, such as imitation and expectation.

Association process

leads neutral stimulus to elicit the same response

Ivan Pavlov

Scientist of Classical conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus

stimulus that brings out before target behavior

Unconditioned response

target behavior

neutral stimulus

stimulus that we want to condition to trigger target behavior

Conditioned stimulus

neutral stimulus conditioned to trigger target behavior

Conditioned response

target behavior caused by conditioned stimulus

stimulus discrimination

differentiating responses between similar stimuli

extinction

conditioned response dies out

Taste aversion learning

associating a smell or taste with an unliked response, causing the taste to be unliked

Associational fear

Connecting a location or event to fear

Reinforcement

Increasing the likelihood of a behavior

Punishment

decreasing the likelihood of a behavior

Positive

addition of something into an environment as a consequence

Negative

removing something from environment as a consequence

Positive reinforcement

addition of something in environment to increase likelihood of a behavior

i.e Giving a dog a treat after going potty outside

Negative reinforcement

removing something from environment to increase likelihood of behavior

i.e removing an annoying car beep after putting on seatbelt

Positive punishment

addition of something into environment to decrease likelihood of behavior

i.e giving candy to shut your kid up

Negative punishment

removal of something in the environment to decrease likelihood of behavior

i.e Getting fined for speeding, reduces likelihood of speeding

Continuous Reinforcement

reward every time a behavior is done

Partial Reinforcement

not rewarded every single time a behavior is done

Ratio Schedule of Partial reinforcement

reward given based on number of behaviors

Interval schedule

reward given based off how much time has passed since last reward

Fixed schedule

next reward interval/ratio is known

Variable schedule

next reward interval/ratio is unknown

Shaping

successively rewarding behavior as they get closer and closer to target behavior

Vicarious reinforcement- Albert Bandura

watching someone get a reward for a behavior increases likelihood of that behavior

vicarious punishment

watching someone get punished for a behavior decreases likelihood of that behavior

Social learning theory

Suggests that children can learn from forms of media on whether to do or not do a behavior, can lead to violent behavior, unable to directly call cause/effect because of personality

Concept

a category or grouping of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences.

Natural concepts

formed through our experiences or observations

i.e watching or playing sports

artificial concepts

concepts defined through specific characteristics that are less able to be related to other things

i.e math concepts

Prototype resemblance

the pinnacle of a concept, what we would expect a concept to be, based on a resemblance to an ideal.

Propisitions

Rules that define category membership, based off necessary or sufficient features

Necessary features of a concept

essential for something to belong in a concept

Sufficient features of a concept

fthe feature can not itself be part of the concept,

i.e if something else had an engine, it would not be part of the car category

Schema

mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts

Mental network

network of prototypes, rules, and propositions that guide us in judgement/behavior and reduce mental effort

Role Schemata

conceptualization of how we are supposed to behave in a certain role

Event schemata

conceptualization of how we are suposed to behave in a specific situation

Trial and error problem solving

trying and failing until something succeeds

Algorithmic Problem Solving

a sequence of steps guaranteed to give the desired outcome

Heuristic problem solving

Shortcuts that give the right answer most of the time, but not always

Availability heuristic

estimation of probability based off how available information is, or how easy examples come to mind

Representativeness Heurisitic

Estimating probability based off how representative what we are looking at is to what we think it should like.

Error in reasoning- Mental set

Thinking a certain way because we have always thought that way

Error in reasoning- Functional fixedness

being overly-fixated on the intended function of things, finding possiblities only based off intended functions

Three Error in reasoning

Mental set, Functional Fixedness, and emotion

Dunning Kruger effect

when people are not aware of their ignorance, leading to overconfidence

Base-rate fallacy

tendency to make estimates based on percentage increase without learning what the base probability is

Gamblers fallacy

attach causality in randomness, trying to make a pattern in randomness

Confirmation Bias

only looking at evidence that supports your opinion

Hinsight Bias

overestimate your ability to have predicted something in advance

Cognitive Dissonance

A state of tension when you hold either two conflicting beliefs, or hold a belief that is inconsistent with your behavior, explored by Festinger.

Intelligence-Charles Spearman

believed that one general factor, g, could be measured and compared among individuals. Compared various intellectual abilities not based on what their uniqueness was.

Crystallized Intelligence- Raymond Cattell

acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it

Fluid Intelligence

the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

Triarchic Theory of intelligence- Robert Sternberg

intelligence in three parts: practical, creative, and analytical intelligence

practical intelligence- Robert Sternberg

“Street smarts'“, the ability to apply knowledge into situations based on experiences

creative intelligence- Robert Sternberg

inventing or imaging a solution to a problem or situation

analytical intelligence- Robert Sternberg

academic problem solving and computations

Multiple Intelligences Theory- Howard Gardner

eight intelligences, and people have many different capacities for these intelligences, making everyone smart on at least some way. These are: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligence

Emotional intelligence- Howard gardner

combo of inter- and intrapersonal intelligence, ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways.

Language

communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another.

Lexicon

the words of a given language

Grammar

the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon

phoneme

basic sound unit of a given language

morpheme

smallest unit of language that convey some type of meaning

Semantics

process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words

Syntax

the way words are organized into sentences

overgeneralization of language

an extension of a language rule to an exception of the rule, commonly seen in children

Encoding-Automatic Processing

absorb stuff and it goes into memory without effort

Encoding-Effortful Processing

using effort to remember, like studying