Psychology Exam 1

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

behavior

Observable actions of human beings and animals

mental processes

Our private, inner experiences. An ever-flowing stream of consciousness made up of (1) perceptions, (2) thoughts, (3) memories, (4) feelings.

scientific study

the use of systematic methods

The four core attitudes critical to the scientific approach

1. Critical thinking

2. Curiosity

3. Skepticism

4. Objectivity

The four goals of psychology

1. To describe (capturing what something looks like)

2. To explain (figuring out what factors make something more likely to happen)

3. To predict (using the knowledge of different factors to predict how someone will act if they are displaying those factors)

4. To influence/control (taking the knowledge we have and forming an intervention to change behavior)

Plato - Nativism

Believes that certain kinds of knowledge are innate and inborn. (We were born with certain knowledge)

Aristotle - Empiricism

Believed that all knowledge is acquired through experience. (We were born with a blank slate)

Descartes - Dualism

Believed that the mind and body are fundamentally different. (We should look at both to understand the whole person)

Hobbes - Monism

The mind is what the body does. (There is no difference and the mind and body overlap)

Gall - Phrenology

Believed that mental abilities and personality traits of the brain are in localized regions of the brain. Personality traits can be determined by feeling bumps on the head.

Flourens

Revised phrenology to become more “scientific” and wanted to build on Gall’s work to make it more systematic.

Broca

Suggested that the mind is grounded in material processes of the brain. Believed that the brain is different among different races.

Helmholtz

Measured the speed of nerve impulses. Stimulus - sensory input from the environment. Reaction Time (RT) - the amount of time taken to respond to a stimulus.

Structuralism

Founded by Wilhelm Wundt. The analysis of the most basic elements that constitute the mind. Thought that he could understand this by studying human consciousness via introspection.

Functionalism

Founded by William James. The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environment. Based on Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection.

Watson

Believes in the behavioral approach. Rejected the focus on the emphasis of the mind; focused on observable behavior instead. Conducted the “Little Albert” experiment to see if exposing the stimulus would elicit a response. “Fears are learned, not inherited”

Skinner

Believes in the behavioral approach. Used behaviorism to explore how animals learned to act in different situations.

Freud

Believes in the psychodynamic approach. Made the psychoanalytic theory - the approach that emphasizes the importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. Thought that humans have thoughts that we know are societally unacceptable and have to repress.

Buhler

Believes in the humanistic approach. Theorized that humans have four “basic tendencies” - gratification, self restricting accommodation, creative expansion (humans have a desire to be creative and we take paths that allow us to be creative), and maintaining internal order (internal consistency and self identity).

Maslow

Believes in the humanistic approach. Theorized that humans have a hierarchy of needs (base needs need to be met first, then we can meet other needs that allow us to reach our full potential and be our best selves).

Biological Approach

Body, especially brain and nervous system. Neuroscience - Scientific study of the nervous system. Structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry. Physical basis in the brain for behavior/thought.

Behavioral Approach

Environmental determinants of observable behavior. Rejects explanations referencing thought. (Believes that we only need to look at the body and our mind and body are one entity)

Psychodynamic Approach

Unconscious conflicts. Childhood experiences with parents (shapes how we interact with people in our future). S*xual instinct. Psychoanalysis.

Humanistic Approach

Positive human qualities/potential (recognizes that humans have the potential to be good). Free will/personal choice (humans have choices to behave the way we do).

Cognitive Approach

Mental processes involved in knowing and thinking. Memory planning, problem solving, perceiving the world. Views the mind as active, not passive. The development of computers dramatically changed the perspective of the human mind. Examines mental processes including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning.

Evolutionary Approach

Explanations of human behavior: adaptation (what makes it more likely that humans will survive?), reproduction, and natural selection.

Sociocultural Approach:

Social and cultural environments. Differences between ethnic and cultural groups, and within and across countries. Culture - shared knowledge, practices, and attitudes of groups of people. Can include language, customs, and beliefs about what behavior is appropriate and inappropriate. Cross-Culture research - research that compares individuals in various cultures to see how they differ on attributes.

Scientific Method

A set of principles about the appropriate relationship between proposed ideas and evidence.

Empirical Method

A set of rules and techniques for observation of evidence. Empiricism - The belief that accurate knowledge of the world requires direct observation of it.

Hypothesis

A testable, falsifiable prediction about the conditions under which a particular natural phenomenon may occur.

Theory

A set of principles proposed to explain how a number of separate facts are related to the occurrence of a natural phenomenon.

Operational definition

The description of a property in concrete, measurable terms. Some things are easy to define and measure (distance, height, weight). Psychological properties are more difficult (happiness, love, intelligence, personality). We can measure these things by facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, energy level, restlessness.

Measurement

A device that can detect the condition to which an operational definition refers. Ex- when you see someone using specific body language, this determines that they are happy.

Population

The entire group of people who are of ideal interest to researchers.

Sample

A smaller, more manageable segment of the population that is of actual interest to researchers.

Correlation

A research method used to measure the extent to which two characteristics, events, or behaviors (ex: variables) are related (if at all).

Manipulation

Changing a variable in order to determine its causal powers.

Random Assignment

Using a random event to assign people to an experimental group or control group.

Six Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe: Begin with curiosity and pose a question. Start to understand what our variables are, may use a theory to guide the questions we form.

2. Hypothesize: Develop a hypothesis. The hypothesis is able to be tested and derived from a theory.

3. Test: Test the hypothesis through empirical research.

4. Conclude: Draw conclusions.

5. Evaluate: Report the results. This may change the theory. The peer review process also plays a role in this.

6. Replicate: Replicate the study to make the data more reliable.

Representative Sample

One that mirrors the ideal population that researchers want to study because it includes important subgroups in the same proportions they are found in that population. It is important to get a representative sample because we want to mirror the population of interest to get accurate data.

Random Sampling

Choosing people (participants) at random from the population so that each individual has an equal chance of being chosen. This increases the generalizability of study results. It may be difficult to get a list of the entire population, making it difficult to always get a random sample.

Convenience Sampling

Recruiting participants from a restricted sample based on how easy they are to reach. This decreases the generalizability of study results.

Naturalistic Observation

Researchers observe and record peoples’ behavior in a natural, uncontrolled setting. Pros: Many behaviors occur naturally and spontaneously in normal, everyday settings. It allows us to observe behaviors in an unobtrusive and ethical way. Cons: Some behaviors do not occur naturally. Some things that we want to observe can only be gathered through direct interaction with a person.

Laboratory Observation

Researchers observe and record peoples’ behaviors in a laboratory, controlled setting. Pros: It allows us to directly observe people’s behaviors that otherwise might not occur in a natural setting. It allows us to exercise greater control over factors that might influence peoples’ behaviors. Cons: Some behaviors may not accurately reflect real-world behaviors because the participant knows they are a part of the experiment and are being watched. It is often expensive to equip/staff laboratories.

Experimental Method

Used to measure the extent to which two or more variables are causally related to each other to avoid the third-variable problem. Requires manipulation and random assignment.

Observational Reliability

When the coders are consistently looking for the same behaviors in the research participants. It is important to have observational reliability so that the experiment is not biased and accurate information can be extracted from the experiment.

Correlation Methods of Research

A research method used to measure the extent to which two characteristics, events, or behaviors (ex: variables) are related (if at all). When to use correlation methods of research: To observe a relationship between two variables (ex: are GPA and success related?), To observe the relationship between two variables that are immoral/unethical to manipulate (ex: is a mother’s alcohol consumption related to birth defects in their baby?), To observe the relationship between two variables that cannot be manipulated, even if it was moral/ethical to do so (is biological sex related to differences in men and women’s behaviors?). We use correlation methods because they are relatively easy and quick to use compared to more complex research methods.

Why does correlation not prove causation?

Correlation does not prove causation because just because two things are related, doesn’t mean that one is causing the other.

Third Variable Problem

When two variables are correlated only because each is causally related to a third variable (ex: confounding variable). Causal relationships between two variables cannot be inferred from the naturally occurring correlation between them.

Independent Variable

The variable being manipulated in an experiment

Dependent Variable

The variable that is being measured in the study. Trying to see if the independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable.

Experimental Group

The group of people who are exposed to a particular manipulation in an experiment.

Control Group

The group of people who are not exposed to the manipulation.

External Validity

How representative is our study of real world issues? Do our results generalize to the real world?

Internal Validity

Are the dependent variable changes the result of the independent variable manipulation? Was there bias or logical errors?

General Principles from the APA Code of Ethics

Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence - Do no harm with your research. Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility - Establish relationships of trust with those with whom we work. Principle C: Integrity - Promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in science, teaching, and practice. Principle D:Justice - Recognize fairness and justice entitles all people to equal access and quality of services. Take precautions to safeguard against bias. Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity - Respect the dignity and worth of all people. Respect rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Ensures that research follows established guidelines and remains ethical. Reviews research applicants to ensure the rights of the participants to protections against harm or injury.

Ethical principles from the APA Code of Ethics regarding human relations and research

Acquire institutional approval (done through IRB). Avoid harm. Maintain confidentiality - researchers must keep all data they gather confidential, when possible researchers must keep all data they gather anonymous, researchers should keep signed consent forms separate from data to maintain confidentiality. Obtain informed consent - participation must be voluntary, participants must be given a full description of the procedures involved in the study, participants must be made aware of any potential risks associated with participating in the study, participants must be allowed to withdraw from the study at any time. Do not offer excessive or coercive compensation - We should compensate participants, but it shouldn’t be excessive or coercive, participation should still be voluntary. Debrief participants - participants must be given full information about all aspects of an experiment after they have fulfilled their role in the experiment. Appropriate use of deception in research - the deception must not cause harm to the participants, the participant must be debriefed as soon as possible. Protection of vulnerable populations - special consideration should be taken to protect participants from vulnerable populations including children, people with psychological disorders, incarcerated individuals, and others who may be susceptible to coercion.

Ethical principles from the APA Code of Ethics regarding animal research

Weigh the benefits of the research with the harm you will do, do not inflict unnecessary pain, and minimize the animal’s discomfort.