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17th Amendment
The 17th Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1913. It established the direct election of United States Senators by the people of each state, rather than their selection by state legislatures.
advice and consent
A power of the U.S. Senate to be consulted on and approve treaties signed and appointments made by the President of the United States.
Baker v. Carr (1962)
A landmark Supreme Court case that decided that redistricting issues present justiciable questions, thus enabling federal courts to intervene in and to decide redistricting cases.
Bicameral
A legislative body having two chambers or houses, such as the U.S. Congress, which consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives.
Bipartisan
Involving or supported by two political parties, especially when they typically oppose each other.
Cloture
A legislative procedure used to bring a debate to a quick end. In the U.S. Senate, it requires a vote by 60 senators to halt a filibuster and proceed to action.
Conference Committee
: A temporary, joint body of House and Senate members created to reconcile differences in bills passed by both houses of Congress.
Delegate Model
A model of representation where representatives are elected to serve the interests and reflect the will of the voters who elected them.
Divided Government
A situation in which one party controls the presidency while the other party controls one or both houses of Congress.
Filibuster
A prolonged speech or series of speeches made to delay action in a legislative assembly.
Gerrymandering
the manipulation of electoral district boundaries for political advantage, usually to favor a particular party or group.
How a Bill Becomes a Law
The process by which a legislative proposal is converted into law, involving various steps including proposal, committee review, debate, and approval by both houses of Congress and the President.
Joint Committees
Committees including members from both the House and Senate, formed to conduct investigations or special studies.
Logrolling
The practice of exchanging favors, especially in politics by reciprocal voting for each other's proposed legislation.
Omnibus Bill
A single legislative document that contains many laws or amendments, often on diverse subjects.
Partisan
A committed member of a political party or strongly supporting a particular party, cause, or ideology.
Politico Model
A model of representation combining elements of the trustee and delegate models, where representatives consider various factors when making decisions.
Pork-Belly Spending
Government spending for localized projects secured solely or primarily to bring money to a representative's district.
President of the Senate
A title often given to the Vice-President of the U.S., who presides over the Senate sessions.
President Pro Tempore
A high-ranking senator of the majority party who presides over the U.S. Senate in the absence of the Vice President.
Reapportionment
The process of reallocating seats in the House of Representatives based on changes in population.
Redistricting
The process of drawing electoral district boundaries in the United States.
Revenue Bills
Bills focused on methods for raising money (e.g., taxes, user fees), which must originate in the House of Representatives
Select Committee
A small legislative committee appointed for a special purpose.
Senate Majority Leader
the head of the majority party in the U.S. Senate, responsible for controlling the agenda and managing the legislative process.
Shaw v. Reno (1993)
A Supreme Court case ruling that redistricting based on race must be held to a standard of strict scrutiny under the equal protection clause.
House size term requirement
435 members, two years, house members must be 25 citizen for 7 years
Senate size term requirement
100 members, 6 year term, must be thirty years old and a citizen for 9
Standing Committee
A permanent committee that meets regularly.
Trustee Model
A model of representation where representatives are entrusted with the responsibility to make decisions for the welfare of their constituents, even if the constituents may not agree with those decisions.
War Powers Act (1973)
: A federal law intended to check the president's power to commit the United States to an armed conflict without the consent of the U.S. Congress.
“Lame Duck” President
Refers to a president who remains in office after having lost a reelection bid or being ineligible for reelection. Their power is often perceived as diminished due to their limited time left in office.
22nd Amendment
This amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1951, limits the president to two terms in office.
Appointment Power of President
The authority vested in the president to fill government offices and positions, including Cabinet members, judges, and other federal officers.
Article II
A section of the United States Constitution that establishes the executive branch of the federal government and outlines the powers and responsibilities of the president.
Bully Pulpit
A term coined by President Theodore Roosevelt, referring to the president’s unique platform to speak out and be heard on any matter.
Cabinet
A group of the most senior appointed officers of the executive branch of the federal government, typically heads of federal executive departments.
Constitutional Powers
Powers expressly or implicitly granted to the government or its officers through the constitution.
Executive Agreement
An international agreement made by the president, without senatorial ratification, with the head of a foreign government.
Executive Orders
Directives issued by the president of the United States that manage operations of the federal government.
Executive Privilege
The power claimed by the president of the United States and other members of the executive branch to resist certain subpoenas and other interventions by the legislative and judicial branches of government.
Impeachment Process
A process in U.S. constitutional law by which legislative bodies bring charges against a government official, including the president, in a bid to remove them from office for misconduct.
Inherent Powers
Powers that Congress and the president need in order to get the job done right. Although not specified in the Constitution, they are reasonable powers that are a logical part of the powers delegated to Congress and the president.
Joint Chiefs of Staff
A body of senior uniformed leaders in the United States Department of Defense who advise the president, the Secretary of Defense, the Homeland Security Council, and the National Security Council on military matters.
Pocket Veto
: A legislative maneuver that allows a president or other official with veto power to exercise that power over a bill by taking no action (instead of affirmatively vetoing it).
senate Confirmation
The process outlined in the Constitution, whereby presidential appointments are confirmed by the Senate.
Senatorial Courtesy
presidential appointments are confirmed only if there is no objection to them by the senators from the appointee's state, especially from the senior senator of the president's party from that state.
State of the Union Address
An annual message delivered by the President of the United States to a joint session of the United States Congress, except in the first year of a new president's term.
Term and Requirements of the President
The U.S. president serves a term of four years and can be re-elected. The Constitution's requirements for presidential candidates include being a natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old, and a resident within the United States for 14 years.
Veto
The constitutional right to reject a decision or proposal made by a law-making body, especially used by the president to reject a bill passed by Congress.
White House Staff
Employees of the Executive Office of the President (EOP) of the United States. Unlike Cabinet members, the staff do not require Senate confirmation. They are directly responsible to the president.
Agencies
Units of the government responsible for specific functions; often part of larger departments or independent.
Appropriations
Funds allocated by a legislature for a specific purpose as part of a budget or spending bill.
Bureaucracy
: A system of managing government through departments staffed with non-elected officials.
Cabinet Secretaries
Heads of the executive departments, appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, serving as the principal advisors to the president.
Commissions
Government bodies established to oversee specific functions, often independent or semi-independent.
Compliance Monitoring
The act of ensuring that entities are adhering to laws, regulations, and standards.
Congressional Oversight
The review, monitoring, and supervision of federal agencies, programs, activities, and policy implementation by Congress
Delegated Discretionary Authority
Powers given to administrative agencies to make decisions and rules based on their expertise.
Department
Major administrative units within the executive branch of the federal government, each headed by a secretary.
Government Corporations
Government-owned entities that operate like private businesses but provide public services.
independent Regulatory Agencies
Federal agencies created by Congress to regulate specific areas of economic activity, operating independently of the executive departments.
Iron Triangles/Issue Networks
Relationships among government agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees/subcommittees, which dominate some areas of domestic policymaking.
Legislative Veto
A provision allowing Congress to reject actions or decisions of the executive branch, though its legality has been questioned.
Merit System
A system of hiring and promotion based on competitive testing results, education, and other qualifications rather than politics and personal connections.
Office of Information & Regulatory Affairs (OIRA)
: A federal office that reviews regulation drafts and assesses their impact.
Patronage
The practice of a political party or official giving jobs and appointments to supporters, friends, and relatives.
Pendleton Service Act (1883)
A federal law that established that positions within the federal government should be awarded on the basis of merit instead of political affiliation.
Power of the Purse
The constitutional power of Congress to control spending and appropriations.
Role of the Bureaucracy
Implementing, administering, and enforcing laws; its functions include drafting rules and regulations, and providing services.
Rule-making Process
The process used by administrative agencies in formulating new regulations or amending old ones.
Spoils System
A practice where a political party, after winning an election, gives government jobs to its supporters as a reward for working toward victory.
Whistle Blower Protection Act (1989)
A federal law that protects federal employees who disclose illegal or improper government activities from retaliatory actions.
Judicial Branch
The branch of government responsible for interpreting the law and administering justice, including courts at various levels, with the Supreme Court being the highest.
Amicus Curiae Brief
"Friend of the court" briefs filed by parties interested in the outcome of a case but not directly involved.
Appellate Jurisdiction
The authority of a court to review and possibly overturn decisions made by lower courts.
Attorney General
The chief law officer of a state or of the United States, responsible for representing the government in legal matters.
Binding Precedent
A previous legal decision that must be followed by lower courts in future cases with similar circumstances.
Borked
A term used to describe a judicial nominee who is rejected due to being ideologically extreme or controversial, originating from the failed Supreme Court nomination of Robert Bork.
Certiorari
A writ or order by which a higher court reviews a decision of a lower court. In the U.S., the Supreme Court uses writs of certiorari to select most of the cases it hears.
Concurring Opinion
A written opinion by a judge or judges agreeing with the decision of the court but stating different reasons for the decision.
Dissenting Opinion
An opinion in a legal case that differs from the majority opinion and is written by a judge who disagrees with the decision.
Judicial Activism
The practice in the judiciary of protecting or expanding individual rights through decisions that depart from established precedent or are independent of or in opposition to supposed constitutional or legislative intent.
Judicial Restraint
The theory that judges should be cautious in overturning laws and should defer to the interpretations of the legislature and the Constitution unless there is a clear violation.
Judicial Review
The power of the courts to declare laws and actions of the local, state, or national governments invalid if they violate the Constitution.
Liberal Constructionists
judges or jurists who interpret the Constitution in a manner that reflects current conditions and values, often expanding individual rights.
Majority Opinion
A judicial opinion agreed to by more than half of the members of a court, setting forth the decision of the court and an explanation of the rationale behind the court's decision.
Marbury vs. Madison (1803):
A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review.
Nuclear option
A parliamentary procedure that allows the U.S. Senate to override a rule or precedent by a simple majority.
Original Jurisdiction
The power of a court to hear a case for the first time, as opposed to appellate jurisdiction.
Persuasive Precedent
A precedent that a court is not obliged to follow but is taken into consideration and may influence the court's decision.
Precedent
A legal decision or form of proceeding serving as an authoritative rule or pattern in future similar or analogous cases.
Rule of Four
A Supreme Court practice that permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari, deciding to hear a case.
Senatorial Courtesy
A custom whereby presidential appointments are confirmed only if there is no objection by the senators from the appointee's state.
Standing
The legal right to initiate a lawsuit, based on having a stake in the outcome of a controversy.
Stare Decisis
A Latin term meaning "to stand by things decided." In law, it is the doctrine that courts will adhere to precedent in making their decisions.
Strict Constructionist
A person who interprets the Constitution in its original context, with a literal and narrow definition of the text.
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