Kin 1070

physical activity

any bodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscles that results in an increase in caloric requirements over resting energy expenditure (raises energy cost)

benefits: decreases over 100 chronic diseases like depression, diabetes, COPD, arthritis, and reduces carbon emissions (walking instead of driving)

sport

a physical activity where people use skill and effort to compete, either for fun, well-being, or performance

benefits: increases social connection and increases fitness components

exercise

physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and done to increase a component of physical fitness (ex: pushup)

benefits: reduces anxiety and increases brain size (cognition)

Health-related vs skill-related fitness components

Health

• cardiorespiratory endurance

• body composition

• muscular strength

• muscular endurance

• flexibility

Skill

• agility

• coordination

• balance

• power

• reaction time

• speed

sedentary behaviour

any waking behaviour with an energy expendature less than 1.5 mets, in a seated, laying, or reclined position. standing doesnt count. you should be standing every 30-60 mins (ex: sitting at desk)

benefits of less sedentary behaviour: increases mood and decreases pain

what is a MET

a unit used to estimate the intensity of physical activity by comparing it to the body’s energy use at rest. 1 MET = 3.5 mL O2 per Kg^-1 per min^-1

higer MET values indicate higher activity intensity

benefits

the more the better

benefits plateau around 3-5 times guideline levels (150 hrs)

benefit is greater early on in the curve. going from no exercise to 10 mins will have larger benefits than 20 min to 30 min.

24 hour movement guidelines

4 S’s

Sweat: 150 mins of moderate to high intensity movement and 2 or more resistance training sessions per week

Step: several hours a day of light intensity movement (including standing)

Sleep: 7-9 hours of sleep plus consistent wake and bed times

Sit: less than 8 hours a day sitting. break up sessions of sitting. less than 3 hours of rec screen time

47% of Canadians are currently meeting the guideline

sport and exercise psychlogy

the branch of kinesiology that involves the scientific study of human behaviour in physical activity and the practical application of that knowledge in physical activity settings

Theory

structured approach for understanding and predicting physical activity behaviours (eg training for olympics)

kin subareas

exercise physiology, biomechanics, sport and exercise psychology, and sociocultural sport studies

a thorogh understanding of physical activity behaviour requires integrating information from ALL the kin subdisciplines

Psychology

the study of the mind and behaviour. has several branches

seeks to understand people’s thoughts, behaviours, and feelings within the dynamic context of the environment

ABCDEs of psychology

Affect (feelings, Behaviour, Cognition (thought), Dynamic (constantly changing), Environment (both our environment and individual characteristics determine our behaviour)

the interrelationships of the person, environment, and behaviour are complex and dynamic, changing over time.

Kinesiology

Discipline: the scientific study of human movement

Profession: work with people of all ages and abilities in many physical activity setting (eg clinics, courts, classrooms) to help them achieve their health, wellness, and performance goals. prevention, management, performance

complexity of behviour

B=f(P,E) ← lewin expressed the basic tenet of psychology as this. Behaviour is a function of the person and the environment

you are who you are (genes and personality affect behviour) and you are as the time is (physical and social environment affect behaviour)

P can have more influence in some situations, E can affect people different and the person affects the situation just as the situation affects the person

Personality

your unique individual psychological profile.

Individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

The stable configuration of characteristics and behaviour that comprises an individuals unque adjustment to life, including major traits, interests, drives, values, self-concept, abilities, and emotional patterns. (dont change that much, help explain behaviour)

Why focus on personality?

because it can influence physical activity participation and performance

Differences reflect…

• confidence

• intro vs extraverted

• competitivness

all influences activity and pa type

we use personality assessments when..

• we assess opponents

• different ways of approaching sport settings (ex: otimistic or pestimistic)

• assess own strengths

common myth

“athletes need a specific mix of personality traits to be successful in high performance sport.”

no specific mix of traits will garantee success in sports

Levels of personality

“Core” characteristics are formed early, are deeply ingrained. These are relatively stable but may gradually change over time. Ex: extraversion, optimism, competitiveness

“Superficial” characteristics and skills are more context-specific and may well change with the situation, over time, or with training. Ex: focus, motivation, emotional regulation. More responsive to context, good targets for change

Famous Canadian sport ‘personalities’

Mboko→ composed, mentally tough, resilient, coachable, calm, confident, humble

MacNeil→ emotionally aware, competitive, expressive

both different mixes but excellent athletes

explaining personality

Ancient Greeks: believed that 4 body fluids/humours determined personality (blood=sanguine, yellow bile=choleric. black bile=melancholic, phlegm=phlegmatic)

Modern(Galen’s prophecy): biology> temperament (eg: shy-bold in infancy)

“Grand theories” of personality

• Psychodynamics (Frued 1920s); inner mind workings determined personality→ Id, ego, superego. Environment had no influence

• Behaviourism (1950s): situation/reinforcement over behaviour. environment had all the influence, no person

• Social learning: emphasis on active perceptions and cognitive processes over behaviour.

Focus on traits

Traits are relatively stable, highly consistent attributes that exert generalized casual effects on behaviour. Trait theories imply consistency and generalizability of behaviour. Once we identify traits, we can predict behaviour.

Eysenck’s two-dimensional (ie, trait) model (1770s):

• Neuroticism: from calm and stable to anxious and moody

• Extraversion: from very sociable and outgoing to very shy and introverted

Big five model of personality (current)

1. Neuroticism: nervousness, sensitive versus emotionally stable, relaxed

2. Extraversion: enthusiasm, sociable versus introverted, reserved

3. Openness: creative, curious versus cautious, resistant

4. Agreeableness: friendly, trusting versus suspicious, antagonistic

5. Conscientiousness: self-discipline, goal-directed versus disorganized

Integrative model

current psychology perspectives take an integrative approach.

• McAdams and Pals (2006): incorporate biological and social perspectives emphasizing complex, dynamic relationships among traits, characteristic adaptations, and the continuing influence of culture.

• Wagner and colleagues (2020): Typical patterns of thinking, feeling, striving, and behaving (personality) are both consistent and malleable with multiple interacting sources of both personality stability and change.

early physical activity research on personality

Griffith (1920)→ identified personality profiles of successful athletes. found similar traits in athletes and determined that there was a specific personality for athletes (not true)

Ogilvie (1960)→ identified similar profiles and developed the Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI) to measure them (not a good way of measuring)

Morgan’s mental health model (1970)→ positive mental health is related to athletic success; psychopathology and success are inversely related.

morgans iceburg

measured that athletes have higher levels of vigor than average and lower levels of tension, depression, anger, fatigue, confusion. According to morgan, being at the tip of the iceburg, or having high vigor, causes better sport performance.

Mental health doesnt predict sport performance but can predict training over mood

clara hughes is a canadian olympian with the 2nd most medals in canadian history. open about having severe depression and anxiety, shows that an athlete can have many different personalities

NBA

The NBA used to use the Big 5 personality traits to screen athletes during recruitment process

dont anymore because there is no evidence that it works

considerations about the research process

Correlation (vs causation)→ correlation does not equal causation, relation doesnt mean its caused by one another

Effect size→ small impact, personality has small impact on sport behaviour, goes from 0 to 0.1 closer to 0 means larger effect

Over-generalization→ a lot of research was western-based and then applied to all over the world. (western, industrial, rich, and democratic) over-generalization of research in specific settings is common and inappropriate

lowest evidence quality is background info and expert opinion

highest qualities are meta-analysis, systematic reviews, and critically appraised literature

good news

caution warranted: physical activity psychologists must be cautious in using and interpreting global personality measures

Morgan’s offshoot: mood shifts reflect overtraining

sport specific personality measures - Anxiety

→ SCAT (Martens 1970s) and SAS (Smith 1990s)

• both are sport-specific

• SCAT: assess competitive trait anxiety defined as a tendency to perceive competitive situations as threatening and to respond to these situations with feelings of apprehension and tension. Predicts more spcific state anxiety in sport

• SAS: similar to SCAT but multi-dimensional (cognitive [mwntal worry] and somatic [physical] anxiety scales)

Trait anxiety= all the time
state anxiety= specific situations or environments

sport specific personality measures - Mental Toughness

Jones (2000s)

• mental toughness→ the natural or developing psychological edge that enables you to cope better than your opponents with the many demands that sport places on athletes

Gucciardi (2020s)

• developed MTI tool

• Focused on training→ recent focus on identifying mental toughness in athletes and related behaviours and developing them

global personality measure = overall poor predictors of sport and exercise behaviours

these are more useful

sport specific psychological skills

Early research successful athletes vs less successful

• more self-confident, greater control of worry, better concentration with distraction, etc

Psychological skill measures

• psychlogical skill inventory for sports (PSIS); wasnt very valid

• athletic coping skills inventory (ACSI); outcomes focused

• test of performance strategies (TOPS2); more skill focused, process oriented

Performance profiling

performance profiling→ not a personality measure. a technique to help individuals identify and assess psychological skills

steps in performance profiling

• identify relevant skills

• teams/individuals rate themselves on each skill

• create the profile

key points from Nature’s video

• going from nothing to something has the greatest psychological benefit

• 2 mins, 3 times a day of vigorous activity can reduce mortality rate by 33% (even walking up stairs counts)

• New years motivation often fizzles out'

• Break up sedentary time

Motivation

Internal processes, such as your psychological needs, thoughts, and emotions, that give your behaviour energy (strength, intensity, persistence) and direction (gives purpose, drives us to achieve goals)

It is not stable but influence by many things, often there is a spark of motivation which then dies off and the cycle repeats

What motivates you

personal factors, cognitive factors, and environmental factors. all coexist to influence physical activity motivation.

sources of physical activity enjoyment/motivation:

• mastery accomplishments (success)

• Social affiliation (connection)

• Movement sensations (feeling strong or more energized)

alll can lead to enjoyment then commitment then the phys activity behaviour

Motives can differ

things that motivate people vary greatly.

ex: first nations student in uni may have culturally-relevant activities that draw from history or lived experiences to motivate them while prince harry created the Invictus games for a challenge of competition.

motives for stopping PA also differs:

kids often stop because of negative experiences, lack of fun, coach issues, overtraining and burnout, while adults typically stop because motivation changes, unrealistic expectations, lack of social support or lack of time.

Behavioural approaches

focus on the E in B=f(P,E) specifically:

• antecedents (cues/conditions that prompt or deter behaviour)- before behaviour

• Consequences (outcomes that strengthen or weaken behaviour) - after behaviour but influence it

Conditioning from environment: behaviour strengthened when reinforced, weakened when punished.

Reinforcement : positive (provide smth good), Negative (remove smth bad)

Punishmment: positive (add smth bad), Negative (remove smth good)

ABC model

A= Antecedents→ occur before the behaviour (triggers)

B= The target behaviour

C= consequences→ occur after the behaviour (reinforcers or punishments)

SMART goals

create solid goals related to solid behaviour changes, self-monitoring and most efficient

Specific→ goal is concrete and tangible, everyone knows what it looks like

Measurable→ goal has an objective measure of success that everyone can understand

Attainable→ goal is challenging but should be achievable with resources available

Relevant→ goal meaningfully contributes to larger objectives like the overall mission.

Timely→ goal has a deadline or better yet, a timeline of progress milestones

Cognitive approaches

assume that people are active perceivers and interpreters of information, and cognitive processes (evaluation, beliefs, values) are key to understanding motivation and behaviour. How you respond to what happens, interpretation of environment

Rational thought and logic to reform cognitive patterns.. Automatic thought patterns/cognitive errors can impact motivation but can be identified and altered

Social cognitive theory

reciprocal relationship between:

Personal←→environmental←→behavioural (results from interaction from personal and environmental)

Self-efficacy: one’s confidence in their ability to do smth; another potent predictor of physical activity (scale out of 10)

Integrative approach

physical activity behaviour is complex

approaches to understanding motivated behaviour are useful but do not fully explain when, why, how much activity one will do. Additional factors thus, must be at play here. Curren research incorporates both behavioural and cognitive approaches by drawing from multiple theories

Behaviour change theory

a structured approach for understanding and predicting behaviour

Behaviour change model

a visual presentation that illustrates a behaviour change phenomena or theory

Dual processing theories

most suitable for context-sensitive tweaks

Fast thinking vs slow thinking

fast→ reflexive (habits formed unconciously), fast, emotional, automatic, limited, important for bahviour regulation over time

Slow→ reflective, day to day decisions, slow, controllable, smart, rational, important for initiating behaviour change

classic duel processing theory experiment: cafeteria experiment, put regular milk at eye level, then chocolate milk at eye level on shelves. regular milk at eye level lowered chocolate milk purchases. Proves that environment can determine our health choices

duel-processing real life example

Carrot fitness app

gave people daily step goals and points as a reward. the rewards tip the decisional balance that gets people to move initially (slow thinking). the more they do it, the more automatic it becomes and reward matters less (fast thinking)

Trans-theoretical Model

aka stages of change model

most suitable when behaviour change is gradual and voluntary

increases understanding of individual readiness and actual exercise behaviour.

Decisional balance refers to the process of weighing perceived relative costs and benefits of engaging in exercise. Favours costs in first two stages, crosses over in preparation stage and favours benefits in last two stages.

self-efficacy: positive relationship between self-efficacy and greater readiness for change.

Precontemplation→contemplation→preparation→action→maintenance→relapse

constantly relapsing

the CSEP-PATH is a stages of change questionnaire that asks people to describe their current level of physical activity and decides which stage they are at

Social Ecological Model

shifts focus away from individual and towards environment for PA motivation

best suitable for bigger population level problems

intrapersonal (motivation)→ interpersonal (support from others) → Institutional (walkable campus) → Community (live next to a gym or walkable sidewalks) → Policy (taxes back for signing kids up for sports)

social ecological model example

looking at common kid pa barriers

1. rising screen time

2. fewer active transport oppertunities

3. limited access to green spaces

4. costs and financial commitments

5. over-programming and burnout

6. global warming(rising temps causing kids to stay inside)

key point 1 of emotions

emotion is a complex biopsychoosocial process. emotions cannot easily be defined. simply, emotions are subjective feeling states that occur in response to events, but emotions are not so simple.

Most psychologists recognize both physiological and psychological components if emotion and consider emotion to be a process rather than a static state.

key point 2 of emotions

“Affect” is the general umbrella term for feeling states, includes both emotions and moods.

Emotions are short-lived feeling states in response to events

Moods are also feeling states, but in contrast to emotions, moods are more diffuse and less intense, do not have identifiable causes and do not prompt specific behaviours or actions.

Key point 3

Arousal is defined as a general state of excitement ranging on a continuum from deep sleep to extreme excitement. It is related to emotion but without direction or cognition, arousal is not an emotion.

Anxiety, which is a feeling state characterized by high arousal and cognitive worry, is the most widely studied emotion.

positive and negative emotions

Negative emotions→ anxiety, fear, envy. narrow options (fight or flight)

Positive emotions→ joy, love, gratitude. Broaden options, build enduring resources (any actions possible)

research supports the key point that positive emotions are good for physical health and mental health. In practice, we should spend as much time fostering positive emotions as we do controlling negative ones. A 3:1 ratio is recommended.

Flow in sport

Flow occurs when perceived challenges are in balance with perceived skills

• when challenges are too high, anxiety results

• when they are too low, boredom results

Challenges and skills are also high and low

• flow… when perceived challenges and perceived skills are both above average

• Apathy is experienced when both are below average

• Anxiety is experience with high challenge and low skill

• Relaxation is experienced with low challenge and high skill

Key point #5

Flow occurs when the performer is totally connected to activity in a situation in which skills equal challenges, and both perceived challenges and perceived skills are above average. Flow is perhaps the ultimate positive emotional state.

James-Lange Theory

bodily sensations stem directly from perceptions, and our awareness of the physiological changes is emotion.

Schachter and Singer (1962)

proposed an interaction of cognition with physiological state

Lazarus’ Encompassing Model

approaches emotion as a multidimensional, dynamic process rather than an easily identifiable state.

sport and exercise psychology scholars have moved to similar multidimensional models that better fit the complexities of emotion.

Emotions and performance

Emotions (two components):

• Arousal/activation (physiological/somatic)

• Cognition (thought)

Anxiety (an emotion)

• High arousal/activation

• cognitive worry

Drive Theory

proposes that as drive increases (as when one is facing competition), learned responses are more likely to occur. As arousal increases, performance improves only if the dominant response is correct performance.

Inverted-U Theory

proposes that performance is optimal at a moderate level of arousal and declines as arousal increases or decreases from that optimal level.

IZOF

Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning

similar to inverted-U but unique to the individual

why new models were needed

early theories assumed:

• performance changes gradually

• anxiety is always negative

• the same relationship applies to everyone

however in sport we often see:

• athletes performing better under pressure

• athletes suddenly choking

• athletes reacting differently to the same pressures

Reversal Theory

multidimensional models consider cognitive and somatic anxiety separately.

reversal theory:

• performance depends on how athletes interpret arousal

• high arousal can be interpreted as: excitement→improves performance or anxiety→ impairs performance

• both have the same physical symptoms: increased heart rate, sweating, muscle tension

But interpretation determines the outcome

Facilitative vs debilitative anxiety

Facilitative:

• increases focus

• increases motivation

• improves performance

Debilitative:

• causes distraction

• reduces concentration

• increases mistakes

The key factor is how the athlete interprets the arousal

Catastrophe Theory

depends on the interaction between physiological arousal (somatic) and cognitive anxiety

when cognitive anxiety is low→ performance follows inverted-U

when cognitive anxiety is high→ performance may drop suddenly aka choking under pressure

**recovery after a catastrophe: after a sudden performance collapse, simply lowering arousal slightly does not restore performance. The athlete must significantly reduce anxiety and arousal and gradually rebuild optimal activation. This process is called Hysteresis

Multidimensional anxiety models

2 main components of anxiety:

• cognitive (worry, negative thoughts, fear)

• Somatic (increased HR, sweating, muscle tenion)

research suggests that these two follow different patterns. Often, somatic anxiety increases as competition approaches while cognitive anxiety may remain more stable

Classic research: parachute jumpers

Walter Fenz studied parachute jumpers. He measured anxiety at different times:

• day before jump

• 1 hour before jump

• during jump

• landing

Goal was to understand how anxiety changes before performance

Key findings

• both novice and experienced jumpers experienced anxiety however, the pattern over time was different

• Novice jumpers: anxiety increased steadily, peaks at the moment of jump

• Experienced jumpers: anxiety increased earlier, decreased before the jump

this means, netter performers tend to control anxiety ealier and bring arousal to moderate levels before performance whereas poor performers allow anxiety to build until performance.

The ability to control anxiety timing is an important performance skill

why study parachuters

parachuting creates

• very high anxiety and arousal

• clear performance stakes

• a well-defined moment of performance (the jump)

bc the anxiety is so intense, the performance patterns are easier to observe

These help us understand:

• how anxiety develops before performance

• how experienced performers regulate anxiety

• how these processes apply to other sports and performance settings

Emotional control

Research suggests experienced performers are better at:

• regulating emotions

• controlling anxiety

• focusing attention on the task

• Example:
  Instead of thinking: “I might fail” They shift attention to: “Focus on technique.”

group definition

A group is a collection of 2 or more individuals who:

• posses a common fate (shared outcome)

• show interpersonal attraction and mutual benefit (enjoy being together)

• have a stable social structure and relationship patterns

• rely on each other (interdependence)

• share common goals or objectives

• have structured patterns of interaction and communication (unique communication style)

• has a common identity and self-categorization (each member identifies as part of the group)

Group norms and roles

Norms→ informal standards of accepted, appropriate, or valued behaviour. ex: communication styles

Roles→ behaviours expected of those in specific positions within a group. Formal roles like captain or positions and Informal roles like the goon

Role elements→ clarity, acceptance, efficacy, conflict, overload, satisfaction, performance

Group performance

Steiner’s model of individual-group performance

actual performance = potential productivity - process losses

potential productivity→ combination of resources (individual talent) and task demands (tasks for each person)

process losses→ two types: Coordination losses; poor timing or strategy (ex: poor exchanges in a relay), and Motivational losses; less than best effort (ex: social loafing)

we want to limit losses as much as possible

Reducing social loafing

is reduced when individuals:

• believe that others can evaluate their collective performance

• work in smaller groups

• percieve their contributions as unique

• have a standard to which they can compare their groups performance

• work on interesting, meaningful, important, or high in personal involvement tasks

• work with people they respect

• expect their teammates to perform poorly

• have a tendency to view favourable collective outcomes as important

Ringleman effect→ average individual effort goes down as group size increases

Leadership definition

The behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups toward set goals

leader emotional intellegence= self-regulation, empathy, and social skills

leadership matters in sports and life, it doesnt just come from one place/person.

Chelladurai’s multidimensional model of leadership

Congruence hypothesis→ optimal performance is realized when the leaders’ required behaviour, preferred behaviour, and actual behaviour are congruent.

The more the leader’s actual behaviours match the preferences of group members and situation requirements, the better the group’s performance and the greater the group members’ satisfaction improves

Transformational Leadership

involves motivating and encouraging others

four components:

• Idealized influence: role model, leaders practice what they preach

• Inspirational motivation: give clear vision, create confidence in members

• Intellectual stimulation: engaging team members in decisions

• Individualized consideration: attending to individual needs

These components lead to better performance, more confidence in coaching, and more team cohesion

Morton (2014) Transformational Leadership tips for coaches

• treat players with respect to earn their respect

• Lead by example

• Remain optimistic and enthusiastic about what athletes can accomplish

• Articulate a compelling vision

• Encourage athletes to provide input and feedback

• Try to understand each individual player and that player’s specific strengths and weaknesses, and support their personaldevelopment

Ammary and Janssen (2021) Athlete leadership development tips for coaches

• Select athlete leaders

• Develop partnerships to avoid dictatorship relationships

• Teach athletes about leadership

• Provide opportunities to lead

• Encourage athlete reflection

Cohesion in sport and exercise groups

"A dynamic process which is reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its own instrumental objectives and/or the satisfaction of member affective needs.” - multidimensional• dynamic, instrumental(Performance based) affective (thoughts and feeling important)

Group cohesion

Basis for sport psych idea on cohesion

Group integration → task and social

Individual attraction to group → task and social

Carron’s (1985) model

Group integration-task (GI-T): the degree to which the group is united around task objectives

Group integration-social (GI-S): the degree to which the group is united around social objectives

Individual attractions to the group -task (ATG-T): group members’ perceptions of their personal involvement with the task aspects of the group

Individual attractions to the group-social (ATG-S): group members’ perceptions of their personal involvement with the social aspects of the group

Correlates of cohesion

• Environmental factors (proximity and distinctiveness)

• Personal factors (individual abilities, attitudes, and commitment)

• Leadership factors (coach’s leadership style)

• Team factors (group structure-norms, processes-goals, and outcomes-performance)

performance and cohesion have a bilateral relationship of satisfaction (stronger for women)

these boost communication and performance success aswell

cohesion-performance relationship

the most recent reviews of the evidence conclude that the cohesion-performance relationship is positive and bidirectional; greater cohesion leads to better performance and better performance leads to cohesion. Cohesion also facilitates exercise adherence (fitness class, boot camp, cardiac rehab)

Team-building in sport

“Team enhancement for both task and social purposes”

Carron and Spink’s framework:

• Team-building→ improves cohesion → improves group performance

• Team building involves:

  • group environment (distinctivness)

  • group structure (norms and positions)

  • group process (interaction, communication, sacrifices)

• Four stages:

  • Introductory (introduce benefits)

  • Conceptual (provide frame of reference)

  • Practical (brainstorm strategy)

  • Intervention (introduce and maintain strategies)

team building interventions

Eys et al (2021) strategy categories with egs:

1. Distinctiveness (sport=t-shirt, haircut ups distinctiveness, exercise=playlist)

2. Individual roles (sport=roles defined by coaches ie quarterback, exercise=lvl of intensity)

3. Group norms (sport=individual contributions, exercise=setting group goals)

4. Individual sacrifices (sport=individual sacrifice, exercise=regular exercise helping new ones)

5. Interaction and communication (sport=input, exercise=opportunities for input)

Social support

we are social creatures but the quality of our social connections is what matters not the quantity.

social support is an exchange of resources between at least two individuals to enhance the well-being of the recipient. It is perceived by the provider or the recipient. Sources of social support can be teachers, coaches, parents, friends, etc.

Types of social support

Tangible (instrumental→ involves tangible or direct assistance eg: someone spotting u at gym or getting a ride from a friend

Informational→ involves giving directions, suggestions, or advice eg: coach explains how to improve a technique or personal trainer giving a detailed workout

Emotional→ involves expressing encouragement, empathy, o concern eg: coach says they believe in you

diff types of support from diff people have diff impacts

social support benefits research

• Rosenfeld (1989): student-athletes > parents and friends provided more emotional support while coaches and teammates provided info support

• Duncan & McCauley (1993): sedentary adults> self-efficacy and exercise coherence was high

• Gellert (2011): older adults> if exercise with spouse, they continued exercising longer

• Loz (2014): socially supportive instructors> higher self-efficacy, enjoyment, and coherence

• Katz (2008): Doctor advice> provided brief counselling to patients and they had an increase in exercise

• Sabiston (2007): Breast Cancer> dragonboat team boosted feeling of social support by sharing common experiences and feelings