Pyschology - CH6: Memory & Cognition

cognition

mental processes that we use to acquire, retain, & use knowledge

memory

process of forming, storing, & recalling info

information-processing model

model that views memory as a computer-like system that encodes, stores, & retrieves info

memory encoding

1st step in creating a memory; taking in information

sensory memory

when your brain briefly stores info from your senses for a few secs→ then disappears or passes on to short-term memory

short-term memory

temporarily holds info for about 20-30 secs

working memory

temporarily holding space that allows us to manipulate info

maintenance rehearsal

process of repeating info; allows us to retain info as long as we continue to think about it

chunking

ability to group several individual pieces of info into one larger meaningful unit

memory storage

process that allows us to save info for later use

long-term memory

stores an unlimited amount of info for an indefinite period of time

explicit memory

memory you can consciously recall; semantic & episodic memory

implicit memory

memory that is recalled w/o conscious effort; procedural memory

procedural memory

knowledge of how to do things as well as conditioned responses; motor skills/actions

ex. of procedural memory

how to tie your shoes, how to type on a keyboard, shoot a basketball

semantic memory

all the facts & general knowledge you’ve accumulated over time

ex. of semantic memory

remembering b-days, the capital of CA

episodic memory

personal experiences/events you can recall

ex. of episodic memory

remembering your senior year prom night, birth of your first child

memory retrieval

process of recalling information

free recall

ability to retrieve info from memory w/o any cues or hints

cued recall

using hint (aka retrieval cue) to stimulate memory

recognition

choosing from a set of options or recognizing the correct answer

forgetting curve

pattern of how info is lost over time

encoding failure

info not encoded → therefore not retrievable

decay theory

idea that over time, memories begin to fade due to natural metabolic processes in the brain

interference theory

idea that info is not forgotten, but rather, difficult to access b/c it competes or interferes w/ existing memories; proactive & retroactive

proactive interference

when you have difficulty learning new info b/c of older memories

ex. of proactive interference

struggling to get used to writing 2025 when 2024 recently ended

retroactive interference

when you have difficulty remembering old memories b/c you’ve learned new info

ex. of retroactive interference

new semester starts so you can no longer remember what your schedule was the previous year

suppression

type of motivated forgetting that involves deliberately trying to push info out of your head

false memory

when you think an occurrence that never happened was an actual occurrence

flashbulb memories

very clear, detailed memories of an emotionally strong or surprising event

elaboration

processing info w/ intention, deep thinking, examples, & connecting it to things in your own life

serial position effect

remembering info at the beginning & end of list, while info in the middle tends to be more prone to memory loss

encoding specificity principle

the way info is encoded affects later recall

shallow processing

learn or think about info only on a surface level

deep processing

requires you to penetrate the surface & think about the meaning of info

self reference effect

applying the concept to yourself results in improved retention

spaced practice

studying something several times over several days

massed practice

cramming studying into one long sension

plasticity

flexibility of the brain to change in response to the environment

prefrontal cortex

involved in the working/short-term memory; holds info for temporary storage

hippocampus

limbic system structure concerned w/ basic drives, emotion, & memory; encodes & transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory

amygdala

encodes emotional aspects of memories; associated w/ fear conditioning

basal ganglia

involved in habit formation & motor memory

cerebellum

hindbrain structure important in motor coordination & procedural memories

long-term potentiation (LTP)

when connections between neurons get stronger the more they’re used

retrograde amnesia

you forget old memories from before the event/injury

anterograde amnesia

you can’t form new memories after the event/injury

dementia

group of disorders that affect the brain & impair an individual'‘s ability to carry out daily tasks

Alzheimer’s disease

most common form of dementia; progressive disease that gradually destroys neurons

language

system of communication that uses rules to combine arbitrary symbols to create an infinite # of meaningful statements

phoneme

smallest unit of sound in a language that can change a word’s meaning

semantics

feature of language that has to do w/ meaning

syntax

describes the rules for combining words in a language

generativity

allows us to create new things that have never before been said

displacement

allows us to communicate about things that aren’t with you or happening right now

categorization

ability to organize or group similar info together

concepts

abstract mental representations for objects or ideas

definitional approach

when we decide whether something belongs in a category by checking if it meets a specific set of rules/features

prototype

“best instance” or most typical examples of a category that you automatically think of

exemplar

specific examples or individual instances of a category that you’ve encountered before

subgoals

breaking up a task into smaller parts

restructuring

looking at a problem from a different angle

functional fixedness

failing to see new uses for an object

insight

occurs when you come to a solution all of a sudden w/o realizing that you were about to get there

single-feature model

involves choosing between alternatives and basing the decision on only 1 important aspect

ex. of single-feature model

car is low on gas → choose gas station based on closest distance

additive model

considering multiple features, give each a weight/score, & sum them up to make a decision

ex. of additive model

choosing what kind of car to buy

expected utility theory

suggests that people should choose rationally & make a decision that results in the best possible outcome

heuristics

mental shortcuts to make decisions faster

representative heuristic

judge something based on similar examples from past experiences

ex. of representative heuristic

assuming someone is a librarian b/c they’re quiet and like books

availability heuristic

judge based on how many examples you can easily bring to mind

ex. of availability heuristic

thinking shark attacks are common b/c you recently saw one on the news

confirmation bias

we look for evidence that reinforces or confirms a belief/decision we already support; then ignore/dismiss info that goes against it

framing effect

tendency to make decisions based on how the options are presented