Motor Learning Theory

1st Motor Theory of Learning

Relatively permanent change in the ability to execute a motor skill as a result of practice or experience

2nd Motor Theory of Learning

A set of processes associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability to move

3rd Motor Theory of Learning

The process of refining motor strategies in performance to enable the individual to apply the skill at a later time or transfer the skill to a novel task or situation

What do all 3 motor learning theories have in common?

All definitions involve learning = permanent change and takes practice and experience

Motor learning is a process. Why?

Changes in motor performance takes time through practice to induce motor learning

Motor learning requires practice. Why?

Learning results from experience, and the skill must be performed repeatedly to change motor performance

Motor learning cannot be directly measured. Why?

Learning processes are inferred from behavior and changes in motor performance

Why does Motor learning produce permanent changes in behavior?

There are observed changes in motor performance consistent over time

What is motor performance?

In the moment, instantaneous motor production. Usually evaluated by someone watching you (what we can measure (e.g., speed, accuracy, reaction time)

"Ability of the neuromuscular system to perform specific motor tasks"

Why do motor performances reflected in a temporary state?

Not necessarily what someone has learned, but how well they perform right now

Can be influenced by motivation, stress, fatigue, anxiety, cognition or arousal

How can motor performance be measured objectively?

Objective — can be quantified (e.g., reps, errors, timing)

Specific to the task — based on the movement being tested

Adam's Close Loop Theory of 1971 Core Idea

Motor programs are stored in the form "perceptual traces" which allows memories for every action performed to be recorded

What are perceptual traces?

Memory-based internal models for correct movements.

-Acts as a reference for accuracy in future attempts

-Built through repetition of “correct” movement

What is the goal of Adam's Close Loop Theory?

Perfect practice of the motor task

Perfect practice promotes what?

Better learning, you develop perceptual traces

Error Detection during Adam's Close Loop Theory

Errors interfere with learning, which reinforce incorrect traces

Why is sensory feedback essential to the close loop theory?

Feedback-dependent

Without sensory feedback, movement refinement is not possible

Close loop theory is too reliant on what?

Perfect practice instead of variability

Schmidt's Schema Theory (1975)

Movements are not stored as specific motor programs, but as generalized rules or “schemas” that can be applied flexibly across situations.

What is a schema?

Outline or general memories that can be recruited for a certain goal that allows to fill in the details

Error can enhance what in the Schmidt's Schema Theory?

Errors can enhance learning like the babies exploring exploratory and performatory sway

"Mistakes are useful — they give feedback that refines the schema"

Closed Loop Vs Schmidt's Schema

Instead of storing every exact movement (like in Closed-Loop Theory), the brain builds a schema

Variability of practice leads to optimal ___?

Learning. Practicing under variable conditions leads to optimal leaning

Promotes Transfer: The schema can be applied to novel movements or environment, however need error to transfer

Dynamic Systems Theory by Bernstein

Nervous system controls multiple degrees of freedom during every movement. Nervous system compress degrees of freedom into preferred patterns that merge without conscious effort

How do multiple subsystems cooperate in response to changing parameters?

Motor behavior results from cooperation between multiple body systems

How does practice develop through dynamic systems theory?

Through proper interactions between contributing systems

Example: A patient post-stroke learning to walk: You're not just working on CNS activation — you're managing spasticity (individual), surface texture (environment), and walking distance (task). Training needs to address the whole system, not just isolated muscles.

How is dynamic systems theory viewed?

Views movement as an emergent behavior shaped by degrees of freedom constraints and system interactions

When practicing, progressing through an unstable state occurs. Why?

When first learning a new skill, the system enters an unstable state. Through practice and exploration, the system “settles” into a new, stable and efficient movement pattern

Optimal Learning Theory

Optimizing Performance Through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning

What are the 3 key characteristics of Optimal learning theory?

Enhanced expectations, autonomy and external focus of attention

Enhanced Expectations

High expectations about success → better goal-action coupling

Increased focus on task goal while not focusing on self

Success with challenge triggers dopamine

Autonomy

Allowing learners to make choices increases their sense of agency

increases dopamine release → facilitates learning and retention

Enhances expectations for future success

What can inhibit learning processes?

Stress or micromanagement

External focus of attention

Focusing on attentional focus related to task goal→ recruits more automatic, efficient neural circuits

Leads to greater automaticity, effectiveness and efficiency

Example: Strength training cue: “Push the ground away” during squats vs “Extend your knees and hips”

What should you avoid while focusing on external focus of attention?

Avoid over-correcting: Avoid internal focus like "keep your elbow straight" → this can increase self-consciousness and muscle co-contraction

If there's more dopamine, there's more....

LEARNING and MOTIVATION

Fitts and Posner 3-Stage Model of Motor Learning (1967)

Motor learning occurs in three progressive stages, moving from conscious, effortful practice to associative and autonomous efficient performance.

Cognitive Phase

High cognitive effort: the learner is trying to understand the movement goal or task

Frequent errors due to experimentation: trial and error is common

There will be large improvements in performance and crucial for skill acquisition

Example: A stroke patient learning how to transfer from bed to chair — thinking about every step (hand placement, trunk lean, foot position)

Will someone progress if they don't understand what they are doing in the Cognitive Phase ?

NO

Most motor learning will occur in what stage?

Cognitive

Can you dual task in cognitive phase?

No

Associative Phase

Movement or skill becomes refined and coordinated

Less variability, slower improvements in motor performance, but they become more consistent

There are still decreased cognitive and attentional demands

Example: A patient practicing balance strategies with fewer falls and smoother reactions, but still concentrating on cues like "shift your weight" or "keep the knees soft"

Autonomous Phase

Performance becomes automatic, efficient, accurate and adaptable

Low degree of attention required, can dual task and focus on a secondary tasks

Can maintain skill in variable environments and under stress

Example: An athlete recovering from ACL surgery returns to sport and automatically adjusts foot placement when cutting or landing — without thinking about mechanics

Systems Model of 1967 by Bernstein

How to control degrees of freedom based on Novice, Advanced and Expert stages

Novice Phase

Decrease degrees of freedom = decreased level of task difficulty. Reduce complexity by limiting or freezing DoF (e.g., locking joints, stiffening movement)

Increased variability and decreased efficiency

Example: A new skier keeps arms stiff and legs straight to feel more “in control” — but this limits mobility and balance

Advanced Phase

Releases additional degrees of freedom

Movement becomes more adaptable and efficient

Example: The skier begins to bend knees, use hip rotation, and shift weight smoothly across turns

Expert Phase

All degrees of freedom have been released = maximum efficiency

Exploitation of reactive phenomena (Exploit mechanical and environmental forces (e.g., gravity, momentum)

Example: The expert skier dynamically adjusts balance, edge control, and pressure based on snow texture, slope gradient, and visual input — without conscious thought

Gentile's Theory (1972/1987)

Describes motor learning as a 2 step process by getting the basic idea of the movement to refining it to meet environmental and task demands

Stage 1: Cognitive Stage

Understand the movement goal and task dyanmics

Learn to distinguish relevant vs. irrelevant stimuli (Regulatory and Non-regulatory factors)

Example: A new patient learning to sit-to-stand focuses on where to place feet, how to lean forward, and how much to push

Stage 2: Fixation and Diversification

Goal is to refine the movement to allow adaptability for movement to environmental and task demands

Fixation: A golfer practicing the same putting stroke (Non-regulatory)

Diversification: A post-TKA patient learning to walk on grass, tile, and carpet (Regulatory)

Stage 1 is labled as ?

Cognitive stage

Stage 2 is labled as ?

Associate/Autonomous stage

What is an explicit process ?

Declarative: Through cause and effect

Declarative knowledge is what?

Factual knowledge that involves association of information related to people, things and experiences.

Example: Being able to describe the steps of how to transfer from bed to wheelchair

What does declarative processes required?

Cognitive processes: Arousal, attention, and reflection

Information is consciously available in declarative memories. Why?

To verbally describe, depict imagery or mentally rehearse

Pretty much being able to convey and describe well

Is declarative processes more in early or later stage of learning?

EARLIER: Usually rapid, changes in motor performance

Similar to cognitive phase of Fitts and Posner

What is implicit processes?

Procedural: Can't explain, but rather perform automatically

Example: Riding a bike

How do procedural processes developed?

Through learned motor tasks done automatically. They are built in "schemas" and do not require thought or effort once learned

When do procedural processes develop in motor learning?

LATER: Develops slowly through reps, refines info acquired during explicit learning (trial and error) and leads to increased automaticity of movement resulting in skilled performance

What controls the "autopilot" in implicit processes?

Basal Ganglia

Neurally, how do you progress with neural learning?

From explicit to implicit processing, reflects skill encoding and consolidation.

What are the 3 stages of neural learning?

Stage 1: Acquisition

Stage 2: Consolidation

Stage 3: Retention

Stage 1: Acquisition Areas Involve

Anterior Basal ganglia: Involves executive and limbic loops, connects to frontoparietal cortex through cortiostriatal loop

Frontoparietal Cortex: Involved in spatial awareness and attention, connects to cerebellum through cortiocerebellar loop

Pre-SMA: Early planning of movement

Cerebellum: Error correction (Mostly in this phase)

Mostly Explicit through spatial/sequencing component

Stage 2: Consolidation

Pre-SMA to PMA: Transitioning to planning to more planners through smoother execution

Basal Ganglia: Habitual patterning of motor behavior

Cerebellum: Refining movements

Still involve corticocerebellar (error correction) and cohticostraital (automate task)

Half explicit and half implicit

Stage 3: Retention

Basal Ganglia Posterior Part: Body movement loop through putamen, well learned motor sequences

Involves corticostriatal (habit and skill rendition) and corticocerebellar (on standby by, less involved)

M1 (MI, SMA, PPC) Automatic movement

Cerebellum: Minimal involvement

Movement is more implicit

Neural Efficiency is defined as?

refers to a shift in the amount and location of cortical activation as someone progresses from early (novice) to later (skilled/expert) stages of learning — whether in motor or cognitive tasks.

May also be a function of task demands (High-demand or novel tasks may still recruit more brain areas

Cerebellum is very active early, multiple brain areas are usually overreactive (lit up) until refinement occurs

What brain areas are less active in late learning?

DLPFC (working memory), ACC (attention and error monitoring), Pre-SMA and SMA (Motor planning), Ventral premotor cortex, Precuneus, caudate and cerebellum (posterior)

What brain areas are still needed even with practice?

M1 (movement execution), Posterior putamen (basal ganglia = habits) and anterior cerebellum (refined movement coordinations)

How do you assess motor learning?

Acquisition Test, Retention Test, Transfer test

Why do we assess motor learning?

To measure permanent effects of practice and performance

Acquisition Test

Performed at end of treatment session to assess short term changes resulting from practice

Example: A patient shows improved gait balance after 20 minutes of treadmill training→ This is acquisition, not necessarily learning

*Probably still in cognitive phase

Retention Test

Assesses how well an individual can perform a motor task over time with the temporary effects worn off

Example: A stroke patient practices sit-to-stand transfers on Monday→ On Wednesday, without cueing or help, they perform it again with correct form→ That indicates retention

Transfer test

Transfer of motor skill from one condition to another condition or novel task

Example: After learning sit-to-stand from a standard chair, the patient is asked to transfer from a low couch or toilet→ Success indicates transfer of learning