A&P I: test #1

anatomy

study of internal and external structures of the body

• what they are made of

• where they are located

• how they are associated with other structures

physiology

study of internal and external structures of the body

• includes individual and cooperative functions

levels of organization

scaled in which structures interact and work together

levels of organization ex. atomic level:

• carbon

• hydrogen

• oxygen

levels of organization ex. Molecular level

• water

• DNA

• carbohydrates

• proteins

levels of organization ex: cellular level

• neuron

• skin cell

• muscle cell

levels of organization ex: tissue level

• muscle

• connective

• epithelial

levels of organization ex: organ level

• heart

• stomach

• liver

levels of organization ex: organ system

• ciculatory system

• digestive system

levels of organization ex: organismal level

human

11 organ systems and their general function: DIGESTIVE

esophagus,

stomach,

liver , pancreas, gallbladder,

Small and large intestine

function: digest and absorb nutrients from food you eat

11 organ systems: URINARY

Kidney

Ureter

Bladder

urethra

function: filters your blood and removes Waste and excess water through your pee

11 organ systems: RESPIRATORY

Trachea

Bronchi

Lung

function : to breathe in Oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide

11 organ systems: CARDIOVASCULAR

Blood Vessles

Heart

function: Provides blood supply throughout the body

11 organ systems: ENDOCRINE

Pituitary gland

thyroid, Parathyroid

thymus

function: to release hormones into your blood While continously monitoring the levels, hormones Control and coordinate Metabolism, energy level, reproduction

11 organ systems: NERVOUS

Brain

Spinal cord

Nerves

Function: to send messages from various parts of body to the brain

11 organ systems: SKELETAL

Cartilage

Bone

Function: body's support structure, gives body shape, allows movement protects organs

11 organ systems: MUSCULAR

Skeletal Muscles

function : Allow movement , contractibility

11 organ systems: INTEGUMENTARY

hair, skin, nails

function : protects body from infection and injury

11 organ systems: LYMPHATIC AND IMMUNE

Thymus

Lymph nodes

Lymphatic Vessels

Spleens

function: protects from infections

11 organ systems: REPRODUCTIVE- FEMALE

Ovary

Uterus

Cervix

Vagina

Function: Creates hormones and is responsible for fertility, Mensturation and sexual activity

11 organ systems: REPRODUCTIVE- MALE

Prostate

testicle

Penis

function : Makes semen and Sperm, produces sex hormones,

Homeostasis

a stable environment in the body

• physically

• chemically

• can be intrinsic or extrinsic

• involves negative or positive feedback

Homeostasis can be: intrinsic

inside the cell

Homeostasis can be: extinsic

outside cell

homeostasis is how the body maintains…

stability

How many biological components are required to maintain homeostasis and what are they

• three

• receptor (sensor)

• control center

• effector

Three biological components required to maintain homeostasis: Receptor (sensor)

• detects change om variable (stimulus)

• sends feedback

Three biological components required to maintain homeostasis: Control center

• processes the feedback

• sends instructions

Three biological components required to maintain homeostasis:

EFFECTOR

carries out instructions (response)

ex: sweat glands and muscles

negative feedback

the response of the effector …..

reduces effect of change in variable

• body is brought back into homeostasis ——> back into normal range

negative feedback

• variables move away from homeostasis

• receptor detects change

• effector moves variable back towards homeostasis

example of biological negative feedback….

bringing body temp up and down

variable

thing that can can change ex. blood pressure, temp, etc

brain is the

control center sometimes spinal cord is too

positive feedback

• the response of the effector increases change of the stimulus

• body moves away from homeostasis

  normal range is lost

positive feedback effector….

escalates

(increases) the change

ex of getting away from homeostasis, clotting, contractions, throwing up, fever, flight or fight response

Anatomical landmarks (you do not need to name the landmarks, just understand the
concept)

specific parts of body

Anatomical regions (you do not need to name the regions, just understand the concept)

divide up body om different parts

Anatomical directions

Superior vs. inferior

higher level vs lower level

Anatomical directions

Caudal vs. cranial

toward tail vs toward head

Anatomical directions

proximal vs distal

toward base vs away from base

Anatomical directions

Lateral vs medial

away from midline vs toward midline

Anatomical directions

anterior (ventral) vs posterior (dorsal)

front vs back

Sectional anatomy

• looks at internal organization

Sectional anatomy

FRONTAL OR CORONAL PLANE

divides body into anterior and posterior

Sectional anatomy:

sagittal plane

divides body into left and right

Sectional anatomy:

transverse plane

divides body into superior and inferior

body cavites

• protects organs from accidental shocks, fluids help with shock absorption

• allows changes in size and shape of internal, allows organs to expand

body cavities are lined with…

serous (watery) membranes

• covers organs and cavity walls

• keeps surfaces moist

• reduces friction

ventral body cavity

(Coelom)

• divided by the diaphragm (allows you to breathe)

• thoracic cavity

  heart and lungs

• Abdominopelvic cavity

  digestive organ, reproductive organs, excretory organs

matter

• made up of atoms

• has mass and takes up space

atoms

• smallest stable unit of matter

• smallest unit of element that retains its properties

• made up of protons, neutrons, electrons

subatomic particles:

PROTON

positive charge, 1 mass unit

subatomic particles:

neutron

neutral, 1 mass unit

subatomic particles:

electron

negative charge, 1 mass unit

subatomic particles:

nucleus

contains protons and neutrons

subatomic particles:

electron cloud

• where electrons are likely to be found

• has different energy levels or shells

atomic structure:

a normal atoms charge is neutral

• # of electrons = # of protons

atomic structure:

ATOMIC NUMBER

# of protons

atomic structure:

ELEMENTS ARE DETERMINED BY

the atomic number

• carbon is C because its number of protons

element reactivity

depends on # of electrons

the electron clouds contains…

energy levels (called shells)

each shell can hold a ….

maximum number of electrons

• lower shells fill first

• valence shell:

  outermost shell

  where bonding occurs

Electron shells

lowest shell

2 electrons

Electron shells:

2nd shell

8 electrons

Electron shells

3rd shell

likes to hold 8 electrons

chemical bonds

atoms combine to form molecules and/or compounds

molecules

• two or more atoms

• joined by strong bonds

compounds

• two or more atoms

• diff elements

compounds are all molecules, but…

not all molecules are compounds

• H₂

  molecule only

H₂O

• molecule and compound

sharingng, gaining, and losing of electrons between atoms occur in..

valence shells

three major types of chemical bonds

1. ionic bonds

2. covalent bonds

3. hydrogen bonds

ionic bonds:

cation

electron donor

• loses one or more electrons

• positive charge

ionic bonds:

anion

electron acceptor

• gains electrons

• negative charge

Attraction between the ____ _______ then draws the two ___ together

opposite charges, ions

covalent bonds

electrons shared between atoms

• one electron is donated by each atom to make a pair of electrons

single covalent bond

sharing one pair of electrons

double covalent bond

sharing two pairs of electrons

triple covalent bond

sharing three pairs of electrons

non polar covalent bonds

• equal sharing of electrons between atoms

• why?

  atoms have equal pull on electrons

polar covalent bonds

• unequal sharing of electrons

• why?

  one atom has stronger pull on electrons

• example: water

polar covalent bond has a slightly ____ and a slightly ____ side

positive, negative

hydrogen bonds

• electrical attraction between polar molecules

• attraction between slightly positive and slightly negative end

hydrogen bonds gives water

a lot of its unique properties

• surface tension

• floating ice

in a chemical reaction

• bonds are formed or broken

reactants

material going into a reaction

products

metabolism

• all chemical transformations within cells

• sustain life

cchemial reactions:

ENERGY

the power to do work

Chemical reactions:

CHEMICAL ENERGY

• potential energy stored in chemical bonds

• chemical reactions release or store chemical energy

types of chemical reactions

1. decomposition reaction (catabolism)

2. synthesis reaction (anabolism)

3. exchange reaction

4. reversible reaction

decomposition reaction (catabolism)

• chemical bonds are broken

• energy released

• AB → A + b

• example : hydrolysis (to break water)

  A-B + H₂O → A-H + HO-B

synthesis reaction (anabolism)

• chemical bonds are created

• requires energy

• A + B → AB

Example:

• dehydration synthesis water had been pulled of of the two molecules (condensation reaction) it produced a water molecule

• A-H + HO-B → A-B + H₂O

exchange reaction

both decomposition and synthesis

AB + CD → AD + CB

A and C are cations (Positivee ions)

B and D are anions (negative ions)

reversible reaction

• some reactions freely move between reactants and products

• A + b <----→ AB

Reversible reaction:

Reaction seeks equilibrium

• each side of the reaction are balanced

• Add or remove reactants

Enzymes

in cells, cannot start reactions without help

Enzymes:

Activation energy

amount of energy need to get a reaction

Enzymes lower the

activation energy of reactions