Rhetorical Handbook

Connotation vs. Denotation

Connotation vs. Denotation

An idea or meaning suggested by or associated with a word or thing -vs—literal definition of a word

Pedantic vs. Simple

Language that is academic sounding, characterized by an arrow, often ostentatious concern for book learning and formal rules -vs—pure, easy, plain, basic language

Didactic

____________ is frequently used for those literary texts which are overloaded with informative or realistic matter and are marked by the omission of graceful and pleasing details. This type of writing is typically "preachy" and dull, and may seem more targeted for erudite readers than a common audience.

Literal vs. Figurative

What you see -vs—what you get from language, tone, symbol, etc.

Active vs. Passive

Subject of the sentence is performing or causing the action rather than a state of being vs—subject is the object of the action or the effect of the verb.

Overstated vs. Understated

Exaggerated vs. expressed with restraint, lack of emphasis

Colloquial vs. Formal

Informal, conversational vs. formal, proper language

Non-Standard Slang/ Jargon

Not adhering to the standard, usually associated with a language variety used by uneducated speakers or socially disfavored groups

Syntax

The way in which linguistic elements (words and phrases) are arranged to form grammatical structure

Repetition

One key element of syntax is the use of repetition—of words, phrases, and punctuation. The repetition can often have a major connection to the rhetorical purpose of the passage.

Genre

is a recognizable and established category of written work employing such common conventions as will prevent readers or audiences from mistaking it with another kind.

Autobiography

The biography of a person written by that person.

Biography

An account of a person's life as written or told by another.

Memoir

The story of a part of a person's life, written by that person. Unlike an autobiography, a _____ does not try to capture the person's whole life and instead focuses on a more narrow segment of time.

Chronicle

An extended account of historical events without interpretation or comment.

Diary

A daily written record of (usually personal) experiences and observations

Essay

A short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the personal view of the author, analytic or interpretive.

Fiction

A literary work based on the imagination and not necessarily on fact.

Nonfiction

A work that draws its information from history or fact, rather than the imagination

Parody

A literary form in which the style of an author or particular work is mocked in its style for the sake of comic effect.

Prose

Writing distinguished from poetry by its greater variety of rhythm and its closer resemblance to the patterns of everyday speech.

Satire

A literary work which exposes and ridicules human vices or folly. Historically perceived as tending towards didacticism, it is usually intended as a moral criticism directed against the injustice of social wrongs.

Sermon

An oration by a prophet or member of the clergy.

Stream of Consciousness

A technique that records the multifarious thoughts and feelings of a character without regard to logical or narrative sequence. The writer attempts by stream of consciousness to reflect all the forces, external and internal, influencing the psychology of a character at a single moment.

Editorial

An article in a newspaper or other periodical or on a website presenting the opinion of the publisher, writer, or editor.

Rhetorical Strategies

Strategies that aid the attempt to sway the mind of the audience

Allusion

An indirect or passing reference to some event, person, place, or artistic work, the nature and relevance of which is not explained by the writer but relies on the reader's familiarity with what is thus mentioned

Ambiguity

Something of doubtful meaning; an expression whose meaning cannot be determined from its context, may have more than one meaning

Anecdote

A brief account of a particular incident, a story that can be personal or observed.

Analogy

The presentation of two things as similar based on common attributes, often used to explain an unfamiliar subject using objects and concepts that are more familiar to an audience.

Anaphora

Repetition of single words, phrases, and clauses at the beginning of sentences to emphasize or create urgency.

Antithesis

A contrast of ideas presented in parallel grammatical structure.

Aphorism

A brief statement which expresses an observation on life, usually intended as a wise observation

Asyndeton

is a writing style where conjunctions are omitted in a series of words, phrases or clauses to place emphasis and meaning equally on the listed words/ ideas.

Enthymeme

This is a form of logical construction developed by Aristotle. Logic is based on syllogism. An ________ removes part of the syllogism focusing on the premise and conclusion.

Euphemism

A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing.

Fallacies

A mistaken belief, especially one based on unsound argument.

Hyperbole

Gross exaggeration not to be taken literally

Hypotheticals

Creating a scenario based on a theory or idea

Invective

Abuse (tongue-lashing, diatribe, condemnation)

Juxtaposition

Placing two things side by side, usually to show contrast

Malapropism

An incorrect usage of a word, usually with comic effect.

Paradox

A seemingly absurd or self contradictory statement or proposition that when investigated or explained may prove to be well founded or true.

Parallelism

Phrases placed in the same grammatical structure.

Polysyndeton

A stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve a sense that what's being discussed goes on and on and on...

Rhetorical Question

A question posed by the speaker or writer not to seek an answer but instead to affirm or deny a point simply by asking a question about it.

Sensory Detail

An item used to appeal to the senses (sight, taste, etc)

Shift

A general term in linguistics for any slight alteration in a word's meaning, or the creation of an entirely new word by changing the use of an expression.

Syllogism

The base of logical construction.

Tone

The writer's attitude towards the reader and his subject; his mood or moral view. A writer can be formal, informal, playful, ironic, and especially, optimistic or pessimistic. While both Swift and Pope are satirizing much the same subjects, there is a profound difference in their tone.

Tone Shift

Tone may shift throughout a work as the narrator's perspective changes, or as the plot becomes more complex, dramatic, bizarre, etc. There also may be more than one tone that an author takes toward a work at the same time. For example, a novel can be both humorous and dark, or both sentimental and formal.

Perspective

The point of view of the rhetor/ speaker of the argument. There may be a shift in perspective.

Purpose

WHY the argument was written—what does the writer hope to achieve by writing the argument.

Theme/Thesis

The message conveyed in a literary work.

Voice

The textual features, such as diction and sentence structure, that convey a writer or speaker's persona.

Verbal irony

When what is said is the opposite of the literal meaning.

Situational irony

When the outcome is the opposite or completely different from what was expected.

Paradox/oxymoron

is a rhetorical device or a self-contradictory statement that can actually be true. While an oxymoron is a figure of speech that pairs two opposing words.

Argument/Persuasion Terms

Methods and techniques that help the construction of an argument

Audience

The people the author is speaking to (listeners, readers, onlookers)

Argument

A way of reasoning where a subject is proved correct/incorrect

Ethos

A rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker/writer's credibility.

Pathos

The emotional appeal to an audience in an argument.

Logos

Rhetorical appeals based on logic or reasoning.

Rhetorical Occasion

The components that impact the reason for creating the argument.

Claim

To make an assertion, to state as true.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning that utilizes elements of persuasion by asserting a claim, consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning that begins by citing a number of specific instances or examples and then shows how collectively they constitute a general principle.

Line of reasoning

The formal structure or arrangement of an argument. In other words, the way that claims and reasons are arranged to lead to the conclusion.

Evidence/Data

Support from a claim/assertion

Warrant

An assumption that there is a connection between evidence and claim.

Counterargument

A direct opposing argument to the argument created.

Concession

An acknowledgement that an argument has value, but there is validity in your argument too.

Rebuttal

A refutation of an argument presented.

Modes of Rhetoric

Manner of expressing language

Expository

Informs, instructs, or presents ideas and general truths.

Classification

Identifies the subject as part of a larger group with shared features

Cause/Effect

Arguing from the presence/ absence of the cause of the (non)existence of the result

Compare/Contrast

The subject is shown more clearly by pointing out similarities/differences

Definition

Places the subject in a group and then differentiates the subject from other sections of the group.

Analysis

The discussion of a subject based on content and style.

Description

Depicts images verbally in space and time, arranges those images in a logical pattern

Narration

Organizes the events or actions in time or relates them in space. Tells what happened, when it happened, and where.

Persuasion/Argument

Convinces an audience by proving or refuting a point of view using induction or deduction.