Myers Unit 2: Research Methods: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning one outcome, that one would have foreseen it

Hindsight Bias

On a quiz you are between answers a and c. You decide to choose a. When getting your quiz back you see the correct answer was c and say "I knew it was c!" But you didn't, because if you did you would have picked it.

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Critical Thinking

when deciding to buy a new computer, helps you choose the best one by considering your needs, budget, and available options.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Hypothesis

If I increase the amount of sunlight a plant receives, then the plant will grow faster

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Operational Definition

Human intelligence → what an intelligence test measures about human intelligence

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants , to see whether the basic findings can be reproduced

Replication

redoing a research study to check if the results are consistent.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth

Case Study

A business researcher is interested in understanding why a particular company has been exceptionally successful in the smartphone industry. They decide to examine/study the marketing strategy of this company.

Naturalistic Observation

-recording behaviors in a natural environment

-doesn't explain behavior, DESCRIBES IT

-goal is to illuminate human behavior

-DOWNSIDES: cannot control factors that would/may influence behavior

-descriptions reveal but don't explain the "why"

Naturalistic Observation

Example: videotaping and analyzing parent-child interactions in different cultures.

Seeing how stranger adults interact with two kids of opposite gender and see which toys they will play that.

Survey

-less depth, people report on their own behaviors

-very important HOW the questions are asked

-phrasing affects expressed opinions

-questioning a particular group or a random sample of the group

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

Sampling Bias

Imagine you want to know everyone's favorite ice cream flavor in your class. If you only ask the kids at one table, you might miss out on what the others like. That's like picking just one piece of a puzzle instead of the whole picture.

Population

All those in a population being studied, from which samples may be drawn

Random Sample

A sample that faintly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Random Sample

Imagine you have a bag of 100 colored marbles, with 25 red, 25 blue, 25 green, and 25 yellow marbles. If you close your eyes, reach into the bag without looking, and randomly pick out 10 marbles, you have taken a random sample from the bag.

In this example:

The population is all 100 marbles in the bag.

You randomly selected 10 marbles without any specific pattern or bias.

Each of the 100 marbles had an equal chance of being chosen.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Correlation

You wonder if tall men are more or less easygoing, so you collect two sets of scores: men's height and men's temperaments.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1.00 to +1.00)

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation)

Illusory Correlation

Percieving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Illusory Correlation

If we believe dreams forecast actual events, we may notice and recall information confirming instances rather than disconfirming instances.

Experiment

A series of observations conducted under controlled conditions to study a relationship with the purpose of drawing causal inferences about that relationship. An _______________ involves the manipulation of an independent variable, the measurement of a dependent variable, and the exposure of various participants to one or more of the conditions being studied. Random selection of participants and their random assignment to conditions also are necessary in experiments.

Regression Towards the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back toward the average

Regression Towards the mean

After berating an employee for poorer-than-usual performance a manager may, when the employee regresses to normal, feel rewarded for the "tough love".

After praising an employee for an exceptional performance, the manager may be disappointed when they employee's behavior returns to their average.

Can lead us to feeling rewarded after criticism, and feeling punished after giving praise.

Experimental Group

The group that receives the treatment to one version of the independent variable

Experimental Group

a pharmaceutical company has developed a new drug to treat a specific illness.

This group receives the new drug to see if it helps treat the illness. Researchers monitor their progress and any side effects.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment

Control Group

a pharmaceutical company has developed a new drug to treat a specific illness.

This group does not receive the new drug. Instead, they might receive a placebo or the standard treatment currently available.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between different groups

Random Assignment

Lets say you have a group of people and you need to form an experimental and control group but don’t want a lack of equal representation and other factors like (race, age, height, etc.) to ruin your experiment.

You tell everyone that can wiggle there ears to enter the experimental group and others who cant to stay in the control group

There is no bias between men, women, children, or races. So now you see equal representation in each group and your experiment will not be affected by a groups different characteristics.

Confounding Variables

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's reaults

Confounding Variables

Use random assignment to account for____________ __________________

Someones race, age, etc. might affect their experience in life, and effect your experience

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies

Double-Blind Procedure

Lets say you are testing a new variant of the covid vaccine. So you have a group of people receiving the real vaccine and the control group receiving pseudotreatment (the vaccine with no drug).

You tell neither the people receiving the vaccine or the people administering the vaccine which is the real drug and which is the pseodotreatment to check the treatments actual affects, apart from the participants and the staffs beliefs of it's healing powers.

Placebo

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Placebo

In thinking you are getting a treatment, you boost your spirits, relax your body, and relieve your symptoms

Athletes run faster when given an "performance enhancing drug"

People feel better after being given a "mood enhancing drug"

Decaf-coffee drinkers become more alert when thinking theyve been given caffeine

Independent variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whos effect is being studied

Independent variable

In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps affects test scores, the independent variable is the length of time spent sleeping. (what is changed)

Dependent variable

In an experiment, the outcome that is measured, the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Dependent variable

In a study to determine whether how long a student sleeps affects test scores, the ________________ variable is the test score. (What is being measured)

validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to

reliability

The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting

reliability

Have to be able to replicate the test multiple times and get similar results

Construction validity

assesses whether a test or measurement accurately measures the underlying theoretical construct or concept it is supposed to represent.

For example: Creating a Creativity test

The construction of the creativity test has to align with the theoretical understanding of creativity

Predictable Validity

looks at whether the results of a test can predict future outcomes.

Predictable Validity

can the scores on a college entrance exam predict a student's success in college

Internal validity

assesses whether the study's design and methods are free from confounding variables.

Internal validity

Transferring to a different setting/student

External Validity

examines whether the results of a study can be generalized beyond the specific conditions and participants in the study. It assesses the extent to which findings can be applied to other populations, settings, or times.

Categorical data

information that is sorted into groups or categories based on characteristics or labels, rather than numerical values.

-equal vs equal or greater than or less than

-two types: nominal and ordinal

Categorical data

Ordinal: pain from 1-10

Nominal: ranking (1st/second choice)

More about whether they're equal or not

Numerical data

consists of numbers that represent quantities or measurements.

-two types: interval vs ratio

-interval: add and subtract

-ratio: clearly defined zero (ex: test score)

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures f variation.

Descriptive statistics

Suppose you are a teacher and you want to understand how your students performed on a recent math exam. You have the scores of 30 students in your class. In this scenario, you can:

Measure Central Tendency: You can calculate the mean (average) score to find out the typical performance of your class. This will give you an idea of whether most students scored high, low, or somewhere in the middle.

Measure of central tendency

(basically the mean) a statistical summary or single value that represents the center or typical value of a dataset.

mode

The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores

median

The middle scores in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half the scores are below it

Measure of variability

a statistical metric or calculation that quantifies the extent to which data points in a dataset vary or spread out from the central tendency, such as the mean or median __________________ help us understand how diverse or dispersed the data is, and they are essential for assessing the spread or consistency of data points.

Measure of variability

Range, standard deviation, variance, mean, median, mode. (All calculated for this measure).

variance

How squished your graph is. The more wide spread, the greater ___________

dispersion

the extent to which data points in a dataset are spread out or vary from the central tendency, such as the mean or median.

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how many scores vary around the mean score

Normal curve

(normal distribution) A symmetrical, bell curve that desctribes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68% fall within 1 standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allow one to generalize from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

Z score

Direct relationship that tells you were a specific data point falls

Null hypothesis

the claim that no relationship exists between two sets of data or variables being analyzed.

Null hypothesis

"There is no significant difference in the average test scores of students who study for 1 hour a day and students who do not study at all."

Skewness

indicates whether the data or distribution is more stretched out to one side (left or right) or is relatively symmetrical.

right skew

positive skew

Left skew

Negative skew

regression

a statistical technique used in data analysis to understand and quantify the relationship between one or more independent variables and a dependent variable. It is a way to model and predict how changes in the independent variables affect the dependent variable.

probability

a measure of the likelihood or chance of an event occurring. In simpler terms, it tells us how likely something is to happen. _____________ is often expressed as a number between 0 and 1, where 0 means the event is impossible, 1 means the event is certain, and values in between represent varying degrees of likelihood.

Culture

shared customs, beliefs, values, behaviors, traditions, and ways of life that characterize a group of people or a society. It encompasses the knowledge, practices, and social norms that are passed down from one generation to the next, shaping the identity and behavior of individuals within that group

Ethical Principles

fundamental concepts or guidelines that outline what is considered morally right and justifiable behavior in various contexts and situations.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

Informed Consent

Inform them on the experiment (overview), get their consented participation; signed

Debriefing

The postexperimental explanation of a study, including it's purpose and any deceptions, to it's participants

Debriefing

In case you deceive someone (dont tell someone the exact extent of the experiment, to test their authentic reactions, emotions, etc.) you have to tell them exactly what you experimented on after, so in case you caused them stress it will not psychologically affect them.