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Data
are distinct pieces of information
Research Data
data collected, observed, or created, for analysis to produce original research results.
Data Collection
the systematic approach to gathering and measuring information from a variety of sources to get a complete and accurate picture of an area of interest.
enables a person or organization to answer relevant questions, evaluate outcomes and make predictions about future probabilities and trends.
Accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research.
Descriptive Design
describe particular phenomena or relationships within a single group sample
typically employed as pilot or preliminary studies and involve basic statistical procedures
do not explain causation, providing information about a group or phenomenon with limited prior research. However, they lack randomization and control, making them unsuitable for determining causation and other implications
can identify "who" and "what," but not "why."
Types of Descriptive Design
DESCRIPTIVE-SURVEY
DESCRIPTIVE NORMATIVE SURVEY
DESCRIPTIVE-STATUS
DESCRIPTIVE-ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTIVE CLASSIFICATION
DESCRIPTIVE-EVALUATIVE
DESCRIPTIVE-COMPARATIVE
CORRELATIONAL SURVEY
LONGITUDINAL SURVEY
Descriptive Survey
This type is appropriate wherever the subjects differ among themselves and one is interested to know the scope to which different conditions and situations are obtained among these subjects. The word survey indicates the gathering of data regarding current conditions.
Descriptive Survey
In this type of survey, it is needed to establish the psychological and social aspects of research by way of application or implementation of evidence to distinguish between facts and influence.
A survey is valuable in:
providing the value of facts,
focusing concentration on the most essential things to be reported.
Example of a Descriptive Survey
A researcher aims to identify job-related problems and job performance of security employees in private and government offices in Cebu City and Province. Using a questionnaire, each job-related problem is rated on a Likert scale with four levels:
4 - very serious problem,
3 - serious problem,
2 - fairly serious problem, and
1 - not a problem at all.
Example of a Descriptive Survey
After collecting data, the researcher tabulates, analyzes, and interprets the results, demonstrating their significance to both the researcher and the subjects. He should then focus on the most serious job-related problems faced by security employees.
Descriptive-Normative Survey
The results/ findings of the study should be evaluated with the norm.
Normative
Often used because surveys are commonly made to determine the normal or typical condition for practice, or to contrast local test results with a state or national norm.
Example of Descriptive-Normative Survey
A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the English achievement of fourth year secondary students at the state colleges and universities in NCR (National Capital Region. An achievement test is the instrument used to gather the data. The results of the test are then compared with the regional norm.
Example of Descriptive-Normative Survey
If the achievement of the students is one standard deviation above (+1SD) the mean, this indicates their achievement is very satisfactory. However, if within the mean, stands for satisfactory; and one standard deviation below (-1SD) the mean, unsatisfactory and they necessitate improvement.
Descriptive-Status
This approach to problem solving tries to answer questions to real facts linking to existing conditions. This is a technique of quantitative description which establishes the general conditions in a group of cases selected for study. Several studies emphasize the prevailing conditions with the assumption that things will vary. They envelop many traits or characteristics of the group.
Example of Descriptive-Status
A researcher desires to perform a study on the socioeconomic status and performances of instructors and professors of state universities and colleges in Metro Manila. He uses a questionnaire as instrument to gather data and requests the subjects of the study to answer it.
Example of Descriptive-Status
Based on the responses, the researcher can determine the socio-economic status and performance of SUC's universities and professors in Metro Manila whether the higher the socio-economic status is, the higher the performance will be; or the lower the socioeconomic status is, the lower the performance will be.
Descriptive-Analysis
This method establishes or explains the nature of an object by separating it into its parts. Its purpose is to learn the nature of things. The researcher should verify the composition, structure, sub-structure that occurs as units with the larger structure.
Example of Descriptive-Analysis
A researcher needs to carry out a study on the job analysis of security personnel in government and private offices in Manila. He devises a questionnaire to analyze the job of the subjects of similar positions, functions and responsibilities and with the same salary.
Descriptive Classification
This method is used in natural sciences subjects. The specimens gathered are classified from phylum to species.
Example of Descriptive Classification
An investigator needs to do a taxonomic study of "butanding" or whale sharks in the waters of Donsol, Sorsogon. He collects from different research stations and then identifies and classifies them according to classes and species.
Descriptive-Evaluative
This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of the current study. It also identifies patterns and outcomes, providing insights into strengths and weaknesses, which can inform decision-making and program improvements. This design is particularly useful in fields like education, health, and social services.
Example of Descriptive-Evaluative
The researcher wishes to conduct a study on evaluation of an implementation of WOW (War on Wastes) in the Division of Iloilo. He devises a questionnaire which evaluates the implementation of WOW and requests the division and district supervisors, principals, head teachers, and teachers as subjects of the study to respond on it.
Descriptive-Comparative
This is a design where the researcher uses two variables that are not manipulated and sets up a prescribed procedure to compare and conclude that one is better than the other if significant difference exists.
Example of Descriptive-Comparative
A researcher wishes to conduct a study on the effectiveness of teaching English using rhetoric and content-based approaches to Bachelor of Science in Human Resource and Operations Management students at the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila. He uses tests as research instrument.
Example of Descriptive-Comparative
All things are held constant, except on the approaches of teaching used. The two variables are rhetoric and content-based approaches. The statistical tool used is the z-test. If significant difference exists it means an approach is better than the other. With no significant difference, the two approaches are almost similar.
Correlational Survey
This is a design to find out the relationship of two variables (X and Y) whether the relationship is perfect, very high, high, marked or moderate, slight or negligible.
Example of Correlational Survey
The researcher wishes to correlate the performance between English (X) and Mathematics of freshmen marketing students in the Career Development Program at De La Salle College of St. Benilde, Manila. He uses tests as research instrument in gathering the data and scattergram as the statistical tool used to determine the correlation between X and Y.
Longitudinal Survey
This design entails much time allotted investigation of the same subjects of two or more points in time.
Example of Longitudinal Survey
A researcher desires to discover a science achievement pattern to secondary students, from ages 13 to 16. He takes a group of thirteen-year-old boys and girls and records their science achievement over regular intervals, in this case every grading period. The researcher follows up this work until they reach 16 years old. Based on the data gathered, the researcher discovers the Science achievement pattern from the same group of students studied over a long period of time.
Quasi-Experimental
Identify differences between two or more groups in an attempt to explain causation.
What keeps these types of experiments from being true experiments is lack of randomization.
Example of Quasi-Experimental
Researchers cannot randomly assign gender to participants. Therefore, any study in which researchers are investigating differences between genders is inherently quasi-experimental.
Types of Quasi-Experimental Design
ONE-GROUP POSTTESTONLY DESIGN
STATIC GROUP COMPARISON DESIGN
NONE QUIVALENT CONTROL GROUP DESIGN
TIME SERIES DESIGN
EQUIVALENT TIME-SAMPLES
MULTIPLE TIME SERIES DESIGN
EQUIVALENT MATERIAL
One-Group Posttest-Only Design
A type of experimental study in which only one group receives treatment and is then measured in a post-test after treatment. In this design, there is no available comparison group or pretest data or baseline condition to compare with. This design is best implemented as an evaluation model.
Static Group Comparison Design
This design attempts to make up for the lack of a control group but falls short in showing if a change has occurred. Two groups are chosen, one of which receives the treatment and the other does not. A posttest score is then determined to measure the difference, after treatment, between the two groups. As you can see, this study does not include any pre-testing and therefore any differences between the two groups prior to the study are unknown.
Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
In this design, a treatment group and a comparison group are compared using pretest and posttest measures. However, these groups are not randomly selected because they constitute naturally assembled groups (such as classrooms). The assignment of X (the treatment) to one group or the other is randomly selected by the researcher. For example, four sections of a course are chosen to participate in a study of teaching methods. Half are randomly assigned a new teaching method and half are not. All are given pretests at the beginning of the term and all are given posttests at the end of the semester.
Time Series Design
Periodic measurements are made on a defined group of individuals both before and after the implementation of an intervention. Time series studies are often conducted to determine the intervention or treatment effect.
Equivalent Time-Samples
This design involves periodic introduction of treatments followed by measurements with the treatments varied consistently over time. For example, to study the effect on student discussions of having an observer appear in a classroom. At time period one, an observer is present and a measure of discussion level is made. At time two, no observer is present and a measure of discussion level is made. At time three an observer is present, a measure is taken. At time four, an observer is not present, a measure is taken.
Multiple Time Series Design
A type of quasi-experimental design where a series of periodic measurements is taken from two groups of test units (an experimental group and a control). The experimental group is exposed to a treatment and then another series of periodic measurements is taken from both groups.
Equivalent Material Design
This design involves giving equivalent samples of materials to subjects, imparting interventions, and then making observations.
Experimental Research Design
have the most control
allow researchers to explain differences between groups
One of the key features of an experimental design is that participants are randomly assigned to groups.
Experimental designs can be used to test differences between groups or factorial differences within multiple levels of each group
Types of Experimental Research Design
INDEPENDENT MEASURES/GROUPS
REPEATED MEASURES
MATCHED PAIRS
Independent Measures/Groups
Different participants are used in each condition of the independent variable. For example, if the researcher is trying to discover if girls are less aggressive than boys, then he obviously need two separate groups, namely boys and girls.
Repeated Measures
The same participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. Often more accurate than the independent measures design. However, it introduces other confounding variables which he must be careful to control namely practice effects or fatigue (these are called order effects).
Example of Repeated Measures Type of Experimental RS Design
For example, the researcher wants to find out if people react more quickly to an auditory stimulus (like a bell) or to a visual stimulus (like a light). He can use the same participants and try them out with both types of stimulus
Matched Pairs
Each condition uses different participants, but they are matched in terms of certain characteristics. Participants can be matched on variables which are considered to be relevant to the experiment in question.
Example of Matched Pair Type of Experimental RS Design
For example, pairs of participants might be matched for age, gender and their scores from intelligence or personality tests.
DEFINED BY THE DESIGN OF A STUDY
STUDY TYPE
RESEARCH QUESTION AND HYPOTHESES
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Research Design
is your overall concept or strategy to put together the components of your study in a logical manner. Additionally, the design ensures that the research problem is appropriately addressed.
Research Problems and Questions
determines the type of research design you should use.
Types of Quantitative Research
Exploratory, Descriptive, and Casual
Exploratory Research Design
establish an initial understanding and background information about a research study of interest, often with very few or no earlier related studies found relevant to the research study.
Exploratory Research Design
design is described as an informal or unstructured way of investigating available sources. You may conduct library search, secondary data analysis, experience surveys, opinionnaire, case analysis, focus groups, projective techniques and Internet searches.
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