APGC Hiland : Studymate terms w/o countries

Civil Rights

Positive acts of government that seek to make constitutional guarantees a reality for all people.

Qualitative Data

Derived from interpretation of interviews, observations, texts, artwork, old maps, and other archives.

Quantitative Data

Derived from the empirical collection and analysis of data.

Empirical

Based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic; objective fact about what actually 'is' - not 'should'.

Causation

A cause and effect relationship in which one variable controls the changes in another variable; difficult to determine with certainty in comparative politics, as often there are numerous variables and no way to isolate and demonstrate which is producing the change.

Correlation

Exists when there is an association between two or more variables.

Normative

Describes beliefs or values about how things 'should' be or what people ought to do rather than what actually is.

Human Development Index (HDI)

Indicator of level of development for each country, constructed by United Nations, combining income, literacy, education, and life expectancy.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

The sum total of the value of all the goods and services produced in a nation.

GDP per capita (GDPPC)

The sum total of the value of all the goods and services produced in a country DIVIDED BY the total population of the country.

GDP Growth Rate

The rate at which the value of all the goods and services produced in a country changes/grows from one year to the next; in a healthy economy this will outpace population growth rate.

GINI Index/Coefficient

A measure of income inequality within a population, ranging from zero for complete equality, to one if one person has all the income.

Freedom House

An organization that studies democracies around the world and ranks them on a 1-7 scale.

Transparency International

A private organization that compiles statistics about corruption in countries around the world.

Failed (Fragile) States Index

Twelve risk factors are used to indicate the vulnerability of any state to collapse.

Political System

Comprises the laws, ideas, and procedures that address who should have authority to rule and what the government's influence on its people and economy should be.

States

Possess territory, government, population, sovereignty, and international recognition.

Regimes

The fundamental rules that control access to and the exercise of political power; they typically endure from government to government.

Sovereignty

Ability of a state to govern its territory free from control of its affairs by other states.

Democratic Regime

A set of institutions that allow the citizens to choose the makers of public policy, in free, competitive elections.

Authoritarian Regime

A system of government in which only a small group of people exercise power over the state.

Government

Set of institutions or individuals legally empowered to make binding decisions for a state.

Legitimacy

Whether a government's constituents believe their government has the right to use power in the way they do.

Nation

Group of people with commonalities including race, language, religion, ethnicity, political identity, and aspirations.

Democratic Factors

Rule of law (not arbitrary); independent media; free and fair elections; transparency in government; citizen participation.

Independent Branches of Government

A feature that is common but not universal in democracies; almost non-existent in authoritarian regimes.

Illiberal Democracy/Semi-Authoritarian/Hybrid Regimes

Displays characteristics of both democratic and authoritarian regimes; example: may have elections but not independent media or government transparency.

One-Party System

Political party system that has only one official political party.

Theocracy

A government controlled by religious leaders.

Totalitarian State

A government that aims to control the political, economic, social, intellectual, and cultural lives of its citizens.

Military Regime

System of government in which military officers control power.

Democratization

The process of creating a government elected by the people; evidence includes more competitive elections; increased citizen participation; universal suffrage; greater transparency; greater protection of rights and liberties; equal treatment of citizens; greater rule of law.

Transparency

The ability of citizens to know what government officials are doing; how decisions are made and how money is being spent.

Universal Suffrage

The right of all adults to vote for their representatives.

Civil Liberties

Freedoms to think and act without government interference or fear of unfair legal treatment.

Political Corruption

Using illegal actions to gain power or influence government policies; inhibits democratization.

Independent Judiciary

Decisions from the courts are fair and impartial and are not subject to undue influence from the other branches of government; promotes democracy and impedes corruption.

Democratic Consolidation

The process by which a democratic regime matures in terms of election rules, separation of powers, and protection of civil liberties, making it unlikely to revert to authoritarianism without an external shock.

Sources of Power

Constitutions; religions, military, political parties, legislatures, popular support.

Regime Type and Power

Authoritarian regimes need less power to maintain sovereignty than democratic regimes.

Causes of Regime Change

Elections, coups, or revolutions.

Government: Peaceful Change

Elections, appointments, lines of succession.

Government: Violent Change

Revolutions, coups d'état.

Federal States

Divide power among different levels of government to confer a degree of local autonomy in supplying social and educational services, while also reserving powers for the national government.

Autonomy

Self-government.

Unitary States

Concentrate power at the national level with more uniform policies and potentially more efficient policy making.

Centralization

The process of a state concentrating power at the national level at the expense of local autonomy.

Sources of Legitimacy

Elections, constitution, nationalism, tradition, governmental effectiveness, economic growth, ideology, religious heritage and organizations, and the dominant political party's endorsement.

Ways to Maintain Legitimacy

Policy effectiveness, political efficacy, tradition, charismatic leadership, and institutionalized laws.

Ways to REINFORCE legitimacy

Peaceful resolution of conflicts, peaceful transfer of power, reduced governmental corruption, and economic development

Ways to UNDERMINE legitimacy

An increase in corruption, reduced electoral competition, and serious problems (such as a poor economy or social conflicts)

Devolution/decentralization

The transfer of powers and responsibilities from the national government to the regional governments

Advantages of devolution/decentralization

Promoting policy innovation, matching policies to local needs, improving policies through competition, increasing political participation, checking central power, and allowing better representation of religious/ethnic/minority groups

Disadvantages of devolution/decentralization

Creating contradictory policies, potentially making policy implementation more complicated and inefficient, allowing inequality between regions, increasing competition for resources, and exacerbating ethnic and local tensions

Policy

A course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government - it may include laws, court rulings and executive actions

Political stability

The degree to which a government is free from turmoil

Internal threats to political stability

Separatist group violence, drug trafficking, and discrimination; mass protest movements that oppose governmental policies or their equal enforcement

Political stability and economic growth

State authorities of different regime types attempt to limit the influence of divisive and violent actors in their countries to attract more private capital and foreign direct investment and to improve economic growth

Presidential System

A form of government headed by a president who is elected by the people for a limited term of office and whose powers are balanced by an elected legislature

Parliamentary System

A system of government in which the chief executive (prime minister) is the leader whose party holds the most seats in the legislature after an election

Removal: parliamentary system

The legislature can remove the chief executive and cabinet with a simple majority vote of 'no confidence'

Removal: presidential system

The legislature can only remove the chief executive through an impeachment process

Head of state

The executive role that symbolizes and represents the people both nationally and internationally

Head of government

The executive role that deals with the everyday tasks of running the state, such as formulating and executing policy

Head of state, head of government

These roles are typically separated in a parliamentary system and combined in a presidential system

Semi-presidential system

A legislative-executive system that features a prime minister nominated by the president and approved by the legislature AND a directly elected president

Policy-making: parliamentary

As head of the legislature, the executive is responsible for both making laws and carrying them out; there are few checks on the system

Policy-making: presidential

Although the executive has some role in policy-making, his primary responsibility is to enforce laws; many checks on the system

Checks ('veto points')

Ways in which the government is limited in the policy creation process; for example, a president refusing to sign bills or courts declaring laws unconstitutional

Parliamentary checks

May censure cabinet ministers, refuse to pass executive proposed legislation, question the executive and cabinet ministers, and impose time deadlines on calling new elections

Censure

Official statement of criticism or disapproval

Cabinet

Group of officials who lead government departments and advise the head of government

Policy formulation

The crafting of proposed courses of action to resolve public problems - laws, court rulings or executive decrees

Policy implementation

The enforcement of laws, court rulings, or executive decrees; this done by bureaucracies

Advantages of executive term limits

They check executive power by inhibiting the emergence of dictators and personality rule; help to focus the officeholder on governing rather than winning elections; and provide opportunities for new leaders with new ideas, policies, or goals

Disadvantages of executive term limits

They force good executives to leave office; allow insufficient time for an officeholder to achieve goals; impede policy continuity; weaken accountability; create a lame-duck period for the officeholder; prevent the officeholder from building experience as chief executive; and can cause poorly designed policy

Lame duck period

The time during which a president who has lost an election or has ended a second term is still in office before the new president serves; difficult to accomplish any new policy

Bicameral

A legislature consisting of two parts, or houses

Legislatures role in legitimacy and stability

Responding to public demand, openly debating policy, facilitating compromise between factions, extending civil liberties, and restricting the power of the executive

Judicial Review

The power of the courts to declare laws and other government policies unconstitutional

Judicial independence

The belief and ability of judges to decide cases as they think appropriate, regardless of what other people, and especially politically powerful officials or institutions, desire

Judicial independence and democracy

Maintaining checks and balances, protecting rights and liberties, establishing the rule of law, and maintaining separation of powers

Judicial independence: causes

Authority the courts have to overrule executive and legislative actions, the process by which judicial officials acquire their jobs, the length of judicial terms, the professional and academic backgrounds that judicial officials are expected to have, and the processes used to remove judges from their posts

Civil society

Comprises a range of voluntary associations that are autonomous from the state, including local religious and neighborhood organizations, news media, business and professional associations, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

Civil society strength

Differs depending on the regime type in which they operate. Organizations can be limited by government registration and monitoring policies

Civil society importance

Even when not necessarily political, when robust - they serve as an agent of democratization

Civil society role

To varying degrees, can monitor and lobby the government, expose governmental malfeasance, represent the interests of members, and provide members with organizational experience

Threats to civil society

The placing of restrictions on NGOs and civil society tends to highlight violations of civil liberties protected under foundational documents

Political culture

The collective attitudes, values, and beliefs of the citizenry and the norms of behavior in the political system

Influences on political culture

Factors of geography, religious traditions, and history, forming a population's values and beliefs about the role of government, the rights of the individual, and the extent and role of citizens in controlling government policy making

Political socialization

The lifelong process of acquiring one's beliefs, values, and orientations toward the political system; transmits political culture

Agents of political socialization

Family, schools, peers, religious institutions, media, and social environments, including civic organizations

Authoritarianism and political socialization

Apply more concerted governmental pressures to socialize their citizens around conforming beliefs than do democratic regimes

Political ideology

A set of values and beliefs about the goals of government, public policy, or politics.

Individualism

Belief in individual civil liberties and freedom over governmental restrictions.

Neoliberalism

Belief in limited governmental intervention in the economy and society; supports privatization, free trade, deregulation, and the elimination of state subsidies.

Communism

Belief in the abolition of private property with near total governmental control of the economy.

Socialism

Belief in the reduction of income disparities and the nationalization of major private industries.

Fascism

Extreme nationalist ideology that favors authoritarian rule and the rights of the ethnic majority over that of ethnic minorities and the political opposition.

Populism

Political philosophy that supports the interests and rights of the common people over that of the elites.