Psych Chapters 10 (part 1), 12, 14

pg 505 - 545 (12) pg 601 - 651 (14) pg 407 - 430 (10 pt 1)

Social Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions as they contemplate, interact with, and are influenced by others in society

Social Behavior

Behavior that occurs in interaction with other people

Crowds

Large gatherings of people who do not necessarily know one another

Groups

Collections of people who know and communicate with each other, have distinctive roles (e.g., a group leader), and may work together toward a common goal

Close Relationships

One-on-one interactions in which a person is in frequent contact with, and feels a strong connection to, another person

Social Norm

A socially shared belief about the type of behavior that is acceptable in any given setting

Group Dynamics

Psychological processes involving communication, conflict, and pressure among group members

Conformity

The altering of one’s behavior so that it matches the norms of a group

Confederate

In a research study, an accomplice of the experimenter who pretends to be a participant

Groupthink

A decision-making phenomenon in which group members are so motivated to avoid disagreement, and to reach a shared decision, that they do not properly evaluate the quality of the decision they are reaching

Compliance

Agreement to an explicit request

Foot in the Door Technique

A compliance strategy in which someone first makes a small request, in order to later convince people to comply with a larger request

Disrupt then Reframe Technique

A compliance strategy in which targets of compliance efforts are distracted, so they cannot formulate negative thoughts about a compliance request

Role

A set of behaviors that is expected of a person in a given situation

Obedience

Adherence to the instructions and commands of an authority figure

Diffusion of Responsibility

Lowered feelings of personal obligation to respond to someone in need, because others might respond instead

Social Cognition

People’s beliefs, opinions, and feelings about the individuals and groups with whom they interact socially

Attributions

Beliefs about the causes of social behaviors

Fundamental Attribution Error

Pattern of thinking in which people underestimate the causal influence of situational factors on people’s behavior and overestimate the causal influence of personal factors

Attitude

A combined thought and feeling directed toward some person, object, or idea

Systematic Information Processing

Careful, detailed, step-by-step thinking

Heuristic Information Processing

Thinking that employs mental shortcuts or simple rules of thumb

Cognitive Dissonace

A negative psychological state that occurs when people recognize that two (or more) of their ideas or actions do not fit together sensibly

Mere Exposure Effect

Phenomenon in which people’s attitudes toward an object become more positive simply as a result of being exposed to the object repeatedly

Stereotype

A simplified set of beliefs about the characteristics of members of a group

Prejudice

A negative attitude toward individuals based on their group membership, involving disparaging thoughts and feelings about individuals in a group

Discrimination

Unjust treatment of people based on their group membership

Stereotype Threat

A negative emotional reaction that occurs when people recognize the possibility of their confirming a negative stereotype about their group

Scapegoating

Blaming members of another group when frustrated with one’s own circumstances

Intergroup Contact

A technique for reducing prejudice in which members of different groups meet and spend time together

Culture

People’s shared beliefs and the social practices that reflect those beliefs

Cultural Psychology

Branch of psychology that studies how the social practices of cultures and the psychological qualities of individuals mutually influence one another

Cross Cultural Study

Research in which identical research procedures are carried out in different cultures

Individualistic

In the study of cultural variations, a pattern of cultural beliefs and values that emphasizes individual rights to pursue happiness, speak freely, and “be yourself”

Collectivistic

In the study of cultural variations, a pattern of cultural beliefs and values that emphasizes individuals’ ties to larger groups such as family, community, and nation

Social Neuroscience

A field of study that explores biological systems in the brain that underlie social cognition and behavior

Developmental Psychology

The field of study that explores the ways people change, and remain the same, across the course of life

Cognitive Development

Growth in intellectual capabilities, particularly during the early years of life

Social Development

Growth in ability to function effectively in the social world, especially by controlling emotions, maintaining relationships, and establishing a personal identity

Moral Development

Growth in reasoning about personal rights, responsibilities, and social obligations regarding the welfare of others

Schema

A mental structure that makes organized, meaningful action possible

Operation

In Piagetian theory, a reversible action that modifies an object or set of objects, either physically or conceptually

Assimilation

In Piagetian theory, a cognitive process in which one understands an object or event by incorporating it into a preexisting schema

Accommodation

In Piagetian theory, a cognitive process in which a schema is modified as response to feedback from the environment

Developmental Stage

In Piaget’s theory of child development, a period of months or years during which one form of given thinking is predominant

Sensorimotor Development

In Piaget’s theory of child development, the stage (birth to 2 years) in which a child interacts with the world through his or her sensory and motor systems

Object Permenance

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen or otherwise perceived

Preoperational Stage

In Piaget’s theory of child development, the stage (ages 2 to 7) in which children can use mental symbols, such as words and numbers, to think, yet still cannot perform logical operations

Conservation

In Piagetian psychology, the recognition that an object maintains some of its essential physical properties even when it is physically transformed

Concrete Operational Stage

In Piaget’s theory of child development, the stage (ages 7 to 11) in which children can perform reversible logical operations (e.g., basic arithmetic) limited to “concrete” objects that actually exist

Formal Operational Stage

In Piaget’s theory of child development, the stage (age 11 to adulthood) in which children can execute mental operations on both actual objects and hypothetical ones, using abstract rules

Theory of Mind

An intuitive understanding that other people have feelings and thoughts

Autism

Autism spectrum disorder, a range of symptoms whose central features include impaired communication and social interaction with other people

Zone of Proximal Development

In Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, the region between a child’s current level of independent cognitive development and the level he or she can achieve only through interaction with others

Temperament

Biologically based emotional and behavioral tendencies on which individuals differ

Temperament Dimension

A biologically based psychological quality possessed by all children to a greater or lesser degree, such as emotionality, activity, or sociability

Inhibited Temperament

A tendency to experience high levels of distress and fear, especially in unfamiliar situations or in the presence of unfamiliar people

Uninhibited Temperament

A tendency to experience little fear and to act in a spontaneous and sociable manner

Imprinting

A phenomenon in some species in which newborns fix attention upon, and follow, the first moving object they encounter

Critical Period

For a given psychological process, a span of time early in life during which a psychological process must occur if it is ever to develop

Attachment

A strong emotional bond between two people, especially a child and a caretaker, such as a parent

Attachment Theory

Bowlby’s theory of the ways in which bonds of attachment between parent and child have a lifelong impact on the child

Attachment Styles

Characteristic ways in which children and parents interact and relate to one another emotionally

Secure Attachment

The attachment style in which a child has a positive relationship with his or her mother, with a sense of security that enables the child to explore the world, confident of the mother’s comfort

Avoidant Attachment

The attachment style in which a child reacts to a parent in a relatively indifferent manner; the child does not count on the parent as a source of security and comfort

Anxious Ambivalent Attachment

An attachment style in which an infant experiences conflicting emotions: a desire for closeness with the mother combined with worry and anger toward the parent

Strange Situation Paradigm

A behavioral measure of attachment style in which researchers record a child’s responses to a sequence of events in which the mother and child interact, are separated, and reunite

Resilience

The capacity to retain or recover psychological functioning after negative experiences

Direct Sibling Effects

Developmental influence involving one-on-one interactions between siblings

Indirect Sibling Effects

Developmental influence in which parents’ interactions with one sibling affect treatment of a second sibling

Self Representations

Beliefs about the characteristics of oneself and the ways in which one differs from other people

Self Esteem

A person’s overall sense of self-worth

Global Self Esteem

A person’s overall sense of self-worth (global)

Differentiated Self Esteem

The varying feelings people may have about themselves when thinking about different aspects of their lives

Self Control

The ability to act in a manner consistent with long-term goals and values, even when one feels an impulse to act differently

Cognitive Control

The mental ability to suppress one’s emotions and impulsive behaviors that are undesired or inappropriate

Adolescence

The period between childhood and adulthood; roughly the teenage years

Puberty

The time when a child reaches sexual maturity and is biologically capable of reproduction

Biopsychosocial Model

A way of explaining developmental events (e.g., behavioral changes at puberty) in which the impact of biology on behavior is said to depend on social experiences

Identity

People’s overall understanding of themselves, their role in society, their strengths and weaknesses, their history, and their future potential

Identity Statuses

In Marcia’s theory, four different approaches to coping with the challenge of establishing a personal identity

Identity Achievement

According to Marcia, the identity status achieved by people who have deeply contemplated life options and are committed to a career path based on their values

Foreclosure

According to Marcia, the identity status of people who know their role in life and prospective future occupation, but feel these were imposed on them by others

Identity Diffusion

According to Marcia, the identity status of people who feel directionless, with no firm sense of where they’re headed in life

Moratorium

According to Marcia, the identity status of people who contemplate many life options but are unable to commit to any one set of goals

Prosocial Behavior

Actions that directly benefit others, such as comforting those in distress

Emerging Adulthood

The period of life in the late teens and early 20s (roughly 18 to 25) experienced by people who have the rights and psychological independence of adulthood but do not yet have the obligations and responsibilities of family life

Life Story

A narrative understanding of the major events and themes of one’s life

Ethnic Identity

People’s personal identification with the ethnic group to which they belong

Lifespan Developmental Psychology

The field of study that explores human psychological development from the start of life through old age

Selection Optimization and Compensation Model

A model of successful aging that identifies three psychological processes that promote positive personal development: selection, optimization, and compensation

Selection

In the selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) model of successful aging, the process of setting personal goals for a given period of your life

Optimization

In the selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) model of successful aging, the process of devising plans to achieve goals you set

Compensation

In the selection, optimization, and compensation (SOC) model of successful aging, the identification of alternative strategies to achieve goals, if at first you don’t succeed

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory

A lifespan developmental theory of motivational processes that explains how perceptions of the amount of time remaining in life affect motivation

Positivity Effect

A phenomenon in which older adults pay more attention to positive information when recalling and contemplating personal experiences

Moral Stage

According to Kohlberg, a period of development during which a person’s moral reasoning is consistently organized around a single way of thinking

Emotion

A psychological state that combines feelings, thoughts, and bodily arousal and that often has a distinctive accompanying facial expression

Mood

A prolonged, consistent feeling state, either positive or negative

Iowa Gambling Task

A method for studying, via a card game with monetary payoffs, the influence of emotions on decision making