Infant and Child Development EXAM 1 Vocabulary

Chapter 1: Goals, Theories, and Methods | Infant & Child Development Chapter 2: Heredity, Environment, and the Brain | Infant and Child Development Chapter 3: Prenatal & Postnatal Health and Physical Development Chapter 4: Perceptual and Motor

accommodation

Children's modification of a schema to fit reality that is the result of disequilibrium

adoption study

A study that tests whether adopted children are more similar to their biological parents and siblings (who have a similar genetic makeup) or to their adoptive parents and siblings (who share their home environment but are dissimilar genetically)

applied developmental science

An approach in developmental psychology that focuses on the application of scientific principles and knowledge to real-life problems

assimilation

Incorporation of new experiences or information into an existing schema that move children from one stage to the next according to Piaget

attrition

The dropping out of participants from a research study

basic developmental science

An approach in developmental psychology that focuses on description and explanation of basic learning and developmental processes

behavioral genetic study

Studies that address questions about genetic influences on development by measuring the degree of behavioral similarity among people who vary in genetic relatedness

behaviorism

A scientific approach that emerged in the early twentieth century that explained people's behaviors as learned through conditioning (experiences)

bioecological perspective

Theory, proposed by Uri Bronfenbrenner, that focuses on how the environment affects human development; this approach highlights development as the product of different nested environmental "systems" (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem) and biology

classical conditioning

A learning process that occurs when a neutral stimulus takes on new significance after being paired with another meaningful stimulus

cohort sequential design

A study that follows two or more groups of children of different ages over time, creating a mixture of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs

concurrent validity

The degree to which scores on a test correspond to those on another test of the same construct at the same point in time

confederate

An actor who pretends to be a participant in a research study but actually works for the researcher

confounding variable

A "third variable" that relates to both the independent and dependent variables and can thus affect the outcome of a study

constructivist theory

A theory of development proposed by Jean Piaget that spotlights children's active role in learning and development

construct validity

The extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure

control group

The participants who do not receive the "treatment" in an experimental manipulation

convenience sampling

The recruitment of participants into a study based on ease of access to them, such as the students in a researcher's class or children in the local community

correlational study

A study that tests associations between two or more variables without manipulating any variables

cross-sectional study

A study that compares children of different ages at roughly the same point in time to enable researchers to explore age-related differences in a certain phenomenon

cultural learning environment

A concept introduced by Beatrice and John Whiting that encompasses the consistent elements of daily living, including a "physically defined space, a characteristic group of people, and norms of behavior"

culture

The shared physical, behavioral, and symbolic features of a community

dependent variable

A variable whose value depends on another (independent) variable(s)

developmental cascades

The idea that changes of one kind can have cascading effects, setting other kinds of changes in motion, both immediately and at later ages; developmental cascades may be positive or negative and typically exert spillover effects across different areas of development

developmental domain

Area of child development such as motor development (related to physical growth, movement, and action), perceptual development (related to the senses), cognitive development (related to thought processes), language development (related to communication), social development (related to interaction with others), or emotional development (related to understanding and expressing feelings)

developmental niche

A concept introduced by Charles Super and Sara Harkness that encompasses the physical and social settings of children's lives, the customs of childcare and child-rearing, and the beliefs and views of caregivers

developmental onset

Approximate age when specific skills emerge, such as first words, first steps, and first signs of puberty

developmental systems theorists

Theorists who posit that human behavior is the product of a complex, ever-changing system, in which multiple factors affect developmental change; this approach highlights the shared contributions of genes and environment on development and rejects the nativist approach of innate core capacities

direct assessment

A specific task or test that researchers administer to children

discovery-based science

Research that seeks to discover principles of children's learning and development without presuppositions about what might be found

disequilibrium

When new experiences do not fit a schema, creating an imbalance between the schema and reality; Jean Piaget posited that disequilibrium moves children from one stage to the next through the process of accommodation

DNA

The carrier of genetic information on chromosomes

ego

According to Sigmund Freud, the rational component of personality that helps keep inappropriate thoughts, impulses, and desires from rising to consciousness and being acted upon

equilibration

A cognitive balance or alignment between existing knowledge and new information

experiment

A research method that tests a hypothesis about a cause-and-effect relation between two (sometimes more) variables, an independent variable, and a dependent variable

experimental group

The participants who receive the "treatment" in an experimental manipulation

external, or ecological, validity

The degree to which a test can be applied across different settings or groups of people

face validity

The degree to which the purpose of a test is clear to people who look it over

generalizability

The degree to which research findings and conclusions based on a specific study and sample extend to the population at large

genome-wide association tests

Tests that analyze massive amounts of DNA information across thousands of participants and then relate people's DNA composition to specific outcomes

hypothesis

An assumption or proposed explanation that is based on limited or even no evidence

hypothesis-driven research

Research that seeks to examine a specific and measurable question along with specified hypotheses

id

According to Sigmund Freud, a part of one's personality comprised of the primitive biological drives that are present from birth

independent variable

A variable that is manipulated to see whether changes follow in the dependent variable, or in non-experimental studies, a variable that is thought to explain another variable

individual differences

The spread or variability among children in various aspects of development, including age onsets, rates of change, and the forms that skills take

information processing theories

Theories that focus on the flow of information (in the forms of sounds, sights, and smells) through the mind; information is perceived, manipulated, stored, retrieved, and acted on, much like a computer manipulates and stores information

interobserver reliability

The degree to which different observers using a test arrive at the same results

interview

Questions asked of participants face-to-face or via phone

longitudinal study

A study that follows the same participants over time, typically across months or years

mediator

An intervening, explanatory variable that explains the association between the dependent and independent variable

microgenetic study

A study that involves frequent, closely spaced observations of children, for instance, daily or weekly tracking of child learning and/or detailed observations of learning in real time

nativist approach

An approach to development that asserts people are born with innate, or core, capacities that are essential for human adaptation

naturalistic observations

Observations of participants in everyday settings, such as at home, school, or on playgrounds

natural selection

Individuals with physical and behavioral traits that are well suited to their environments have an increased chance of surviving and reproducing, thereby passing these adaptive traits on to subsequent generations, an observation first advanced by Charles Darwin

nature

Influences on learning and development arising from a child's genetic inheritance and other biological factors

negative reinforcement

The presentation of an aversive stimulus that involves some type of discomfort (e.g., car alarm) to strengthen a target behavior (e.g., fastening a seat belt)

nurture

Influences on learning and development that arise from life experiences and environmental contexts

observation

Watching what participants do in a controlled laboratory setting or in natural settings such as home or school

observational learning

A form of learning in which children figure out how to act by watching and modeling other people; Albert Bandura first demonstrated the importance of children's observational learning

open science

A movement that encourages researchers to fully document and share information on a study's procedures, recruitment methods, participant characteristics, measures, raw data, analyses, and funding sources

operant conditioning

A learning process that leads to an increase or decrease in behaviors depending on whether the behaviors are rewarded or punished

physiological assessments

Measures of the functioning of different parts of the body including brain activation, heart rate, blood pressure, eye movements, and even the hormones people produce in response to stress

plasticity

The capacity to adapt and change in response to changing environments and experiences

population

The target sample to which a researcher aims to generalize findings based on a specific study sample

positive reinforcement

The introduction of a desirable or pleasant stimulus to reward and encourage a particular behavior

predictive validity

The degree to which scores on a test at one point in time predict scores on a similar or related test or criterion (often over time)

psychodynamic theories

A set of theories that consider personality to be a product of conscious and unconscious forces; Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson were two prominent theorists of this tradition

psychosexual stage theory

A theory developed by Sigmund Freud that emphasized the central role of children's biological drives, particularly the sex drive, in behavior

psychosocial stage theory

A theory, developed by Erik Erikson, positing that people's search for an identity presents developmental challenges throughout the life course; at each of eight psychosocial stages, people experience a unique internal conflict about their identity that they must resolve to move on to the next stage in a healthy way

qualitative change

Progression through a sequence of distinct stages in children's thinking and acting

qualitative research

An approach in which researchers explore in depth a phenomenon without a set of specific hypotheses; qualitative research may include unstructured interviews

quantitative change

Gradual changes over time in the amount, frequency, or degree of children's behaviors

random assignment

The use of chance procedures, such as flipping a coin or using a random-number table, to assign participants to treatment or control; these procedures ensure that every person in the study has the same opportunity to be assigned to one or the other group

rate of change

Course of change over time, including how fast children progress in their skills

reliability

The consistency of scores for participants across different observers or over time; two common types of reliability are interobserver reliability and test-retest reliability

replicability

The degree to which the findings of a study are confirmed when repeated using the identical procedures applied in the original study with a new sample

replication

The ability of other scientists to obtain similar findings if they were to use the same methods and measures on a similar population as in the original study

research method

How data are gathered to test predictions and interpret results

sample size

The number of people who participate in a study

schemas

Basic units of information, as posited by Jean Piaget, that are cognitive representations of the world; Piaget believed that schemas determine how children of different ages organize and understand information

scientific method

Steps that scientists use to test hypotheses: identifying a question; formulating a hypothesis that answers the question; testing the hypothesis with a research study; and analyzing study results and drawing conclusions

scientific review board

A university board that reviews research study plans to ensure they are ethical and well designed; the board is usually comprised of scientists from multiple disciplines and also might include legal representatives, university staff, and community members with no affiliation to the university

Skinner box

An operant conditioning chamber, originally used by B.F. Skinner, in which animals learn to increase or decrease specific behaviors to obtain food, water, or other types of reinforcement

social desirability bias

When participants answer questions in a way they believe is desired or "correct," rather than truthfully

social learning theory

An approach to development that echoes some of the principles of behaviorism regarding learning through reinforcement, yet advances on those principles in key ways; social learning theory also emphasizes how children learn new behaviors by imitating others

sociocultural theories

Theories that build on the foundational work of Lev Vygotsky that focus on the contexts of child development, placing much weight on the nurture end of the nature-nurture seesaw and assigning a very central role to culture

stability

Consistency in the rank-ordering of children on a specific behavior or skill, such as when children who are relatively high or low on a particular behavior or characteristic at a certain point in time are also relatively high or low on the same behavior or characteristic at later times

structured interview

Interview in which researchers ask specific, close-ended questions; for example, a structured interview may ask an adolescent about specific risk behaviors

structured observations

Observations in which researchers observe participants performing a specific activity—for example, interacting with peers during a game—typically in a laboratory setting

study design

A specific plan for conducting a study that allows the researcher to test a study's hypotheses

superego

According to Sigmund Freud, a part of one's late-developing personality that functions as a conscience to ensure that children behave in morally acceptable ways and uphold family and community standards and expectations

survey

Questions asked of participants through written format

test-retest reliability

The degree to which an individual receives the same score (or at least a close score) when tested at different times under similar conditions

the form of skills

The form that a specific behavior takes in children from different communities, such as learning to use chopsticks or forks as implements for eating

theory

A set of interconnected statements or general principles that explain a set of observable events

twin study

A study that tests whether genetic similarity relates to behavioral similarity

unstructured interview

Interview in which researchers ask open-ended questions to elicit more information from participants than would be possible with close-ended questions; unstructured interviews are a part of qualitative research

validity

The degree to which a test (which can be an actual test, questionnaire, and so forth) measures what it is supposed to measure; there exist different forms of validity

variables

Factors of interest in a study (such as a child's sex); a characteristic or something that can be examined in relation to something else (i.e., another variable), such as whether a child's sex relates to the type of play children display

vicarious reinforcement

A form of observational learning in which children learn how to behave by watching others get rewarded or punished