Vitamins and Minerals Study Guide

How are vitamins classified? Into which groups?

Vitamins are divided on the basis of solubility properties into fat soluble and water soluble.

Vitamins are a group of chemically unrelated ____ molecules needed in minute amounts.

organic

(t/f) vitamins provide energy and are organic compounds

False, even though they are organic compounds and are not used for energy production or the synthesis of structural compounds. Used for physiological functions.

(t/f) vitamins are used for the synthesis of structural compounds

False

How are most vitamins provided to the animal? What are other ways they can be synthesized?

Most vitamins need to be provided to the animal through diet, while some vitamins can be synthesized by the rumen and hindgut microbes or by exposure to sunlight.

What are the fat soluble vitamins?

A, D, E, and K

Where are fat soluble vitamins stored?

Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and adipose tissue, and excess storage can be toxic for A and D.

(t/f) there is always a daily need for fat-soluble vitamins

False because fat-soluble vitamins can be stored.

Do deficiencies in fat-soluble vitamins happen quickly or over time?

Deficiencies will happen very slowly over time. Also, it is then hard to raise the level back up.

What are the forms of vitamin K?

Vitamin K includes a group of compounds called quinones.

• K1 is found in green plants (phylloquinone)

• K2 (menaquinones) is synthesized by hindgut bacteria

• K3 (menadione) is the most common version of vitamin K that is added to animal diets and is the synthetic form.

Absorbed readily with fat in the gi tract.

The liver converts K1 and K3 to K2 before it is used. K2 is the metabolically active form.

What is retinol?

Retinol is the biologically active form of Vitamin A. Biologically active is the specific molecule that the body utilizes directly for its functions, often requiring conversion from a less active form.

What are carotenoids?

Carotenoids are the plant form or precursor and are pigments present in plant cells that provide the deep orange/yellow color of plant foods.

• Carotenes – have Vitamin A activity (especially β-carotene)

• Xanthophylls – do not have vitamin activity and are involved in providing color pigments and are used in diets for plumage color enrichment, egg yolk pigmentation, and aquaculture feeds.

What are the signs of vitamin A deficiencies?

• Night blindness (early) leading to full blindness

• Dry eyes, skin, and other tissue

• Increased infection

• Thinning and ulceration of the cornea

• Oval, triangular, or irregular foamy white patches on the white of the eye

• Dry hair

• Pruritis (extreme dry skin)

• Broken fingernails

What are the sources of vitamin A?

• Cantaloupe

• Carrots

• Dark leafy greens

• Mango

• Sweet potatoe

• Tuna

What is vitamin A digested and absorbed with?

Vitamin A is digested and absorbed along with fat, hydrolyzed by pancreatic lipase, and incorporated into lipid micelles. They are eventually incorporated into chylomicrons and transported to the lymph for storage in the liver as retinyl esters.

What is unique about cats and vitamin A?

Cats cannot convert β-carotene to vitamin A due to the lack of β-carotene splitting enzyme and need preformed vitamin A from animal sources.

Eating what could lead to death from vitamin A toxicity in the arctic?

Polar bear liver

What is vitamin D called?

Vitamin D is called the "sunshine" vitamin. Vitamin as D3 is synthesized from cholesterol in the skin upon exposure to UV radiation.

What are the two forms of vitamin D?

Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2, activated plant form) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3, activated animal form).

How is D2 formed in plants?

D2 in plants is formed upon exposure to sunlight after harvest or injury and not in living plant cells. This is why sun-cured forages and hay are good sources of Vitamin D in grazing ruminant animals.

Which form of vitamin D is the most important in omnivores and carnivores?

D3 is the form of most importance in omnivores and carnivores; however, in most animals, D2 can be converted to D3. The efficiency of conversion is low in poultry.

(t/f) vitamin D is a hormone

True, because vitamin D is produced in the body and due to its regulatory functions in calcium and phosphorous homeostasis.

(t/f) vitamin D is required for calcium absorption

True

What is caused by inadequate vitamin D?

Osteomalacia (Rickets)

• weight loss

• enlarged or stiff joints; bowed legs

What can cause vitamin D toxicity?

Excess vitamin D supplementation which causes the deposition of calcium in the kidneys, heart, and lungs.

Which form of vitamin E is most biologically active?

Vitamin E is a term that is used to describe a group of chemically related compounds called tocopherols and tocotrienols, with α-tocopherol being the most active biological form and the one that is added to animal diets.

What are the main functions of vitamin E?

Vitamin E has two main functions: avoiding oxidation and promoting normal reproduction. Vitamin E serves as an antioxidant to protect the integrity of cell membranes.

Why is vitamin E added to foods?

It is added to foods to protect palatability, decrease rancidity, and prevent the destruction of nutrients while protecting other nutrients such as proteins and vitamin A. Because of this, the level of Vitamin E in a diet depends on the level of polyunsaturated fatty acids, degree of peroxidative damage, and other external stressors.

Vitamin E has a sparing action of which mineral?

Vitamin E has a sparing action on the mineral selenium.

What are good sources of vitamin E?

Plant oils and egg yolks are good sources of vitamin E.

(t/f) vitamin E is very stable in animal feed

False. Since vitamin E is highly prone to destruction, proper storage of prepared feed (away from heat and light) is necessary to prevent oxidative changes to fat and to maintain vitamin E levels.

What disease does vitamin E deficiency cause?

White muscle disease (stiff-lamb disease)

• essentially paralysis in lambs

How can you treat white muscle disease?

Vitamin E/selenium injections if caught early and selenium supplements.

Which fat-soluble vitamin is least toxic?

Vitamin E is the least toxic of the fat-soluble vitamins, and high levels are added to the diets of animals to enhance food nutritional and aesthetic value and lipid stability.

Vitamin K includes a group of compounds called the _

quinones

How are K1 and K2 found?

• K1 is found in green plants (phylloquinone)

• K2 (menaquinones) is synthesized by hindgut bacteria

What organ converts vitamin K1 and K3 to K2?

The liver

What form of vitamin K is commonly added to feed?

K3 (menadione) is the most common version of vitamin K added to animal diets and is the synthetic form.

Vitamin K is needed for synthesis of what blood clotting protein?

Vitamin K is needed for the synthesis of prothrombin, a blood-clotting protein. The enzymes needed for the blood-clotting process are vitamin K dependent, and hence, a deficiency will lead to a prolonged bleeding time.

(t/f) GI bacteria can provide the needed vitamin K to most animals

True, through absorption from the hindgut or through coprophagy (eating feces). Raising animals on wire floors or on prolonged antibiotic therapy can limit the availability of vitamin K in the diet.

_ can provide the needed vitamin K to most animals through absorption

The hindgut

What are the water soluble vitamins?

Vitamin B and C

What are the B vitamins?

• Thiamine (B1)

• Riboflavin (B2)

• Niacin (B3)

• Pyridoxine (B6)

• Pantothenic acid (B5)

• Biotin (B7)

• Folic acid (B9)

• Cobalamin (B12)

• Choline

What is referred to as vitamin B1?

Thiamine is also referred to as vitamin B1, as it is the first vitamin identified.

What are the functions of B vitamins?

Functions:

• Metabolic catalysts (coenzymes) for energy metabolism pathways

• Cellular maintenance

• Blood cell formation

In ruminant animals and herbivores, microbial synthesis meets the requirements, while in monogastric animals, daily supplementation is essential.

B complex vitamins are prone to loss during feed processing.

(t/f) there is no storage of B12

False, this is the only form of vitamin B that is stored, and it is stored in the liver.

The amount of _ ingestion alters thiamine requirements in the diet

CHOs (carbohydrates).

(t/f) Thiamine is very stable in the feed

False, since thiamine is heat labile, feed processing can destroy thiamine content.

What are good sources of Thiamine?

Cereal grains

What causes Chastek paralysis?

Thiamine deficiency:

• Causes a dysfunction in the nervous system due to its role in neurophysiology.

• Chastek paralysis – raw fish and bracken ferns contain an enzyme, thiaminase, which destroys thiamine, causing a deficiency that causes a neurological disorder

Where can you find thiaminase?

Raw fish and bracken ferns

How is Riboflavin named?

Riboflavin is named for its yellow color (flavin) and sugar (ribose).

How is Riboflavin destroyed?

It is relatively heat stable but easily destroyed by light.

Which feed binds to niacin and makes it unavailable for absorption?

Corn contains niacinogen, which binds niacin tightly and makes it unavailable for absorption.

Niacin in cereal grains is in ____ form

Niacin (B3) is present in a bound form in cereal grains and is not biologically available to animals.

Niacin in _ sources is highly available

Niacin from animal sources is highly available.

What animals cannot synthesize niacin from tryptophan

Most animals (except cats) are capable of synthesizing niacin from the essential amino acid tryptophan. As a result, levels of tryptophan can affect niacin requirements. However, feeds low in niacin are usually also low in tryptophan. Cats should receive the entire supply of niacin from their diet.

What causes black tongue disease?

Vitamin B3 (niacin) deficiency

What is the biologically active form of B6 (Pyridoxine)?

There are three forms of pyridoxine, but pyridoxal is the biologically active form. Pyridoxal is a component of a coenzyme that participates in a wide variety of biochemical reactions, most of them involving amino acid metabolism. The synthesis of tryptophan from niacin requires vitamin B6.

Which food binds biotin and makes it unavailable?

Raw egg whites contain a lot of avidin, which binds biotin and makes it unavailable for digestion and absorption, leading to a deficiency. Biotin deficiency causes dermatitis and hair loss.

What is the only vitamin that is synthesized only by microorganisms?

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin/Cyanocobalamin) is unique in that it has a trace element mineral (cobalt) as its active site. It is also the only vitamin that is synthesized only by microorganisms. B12 and folic acid have a close relationship.

Cobalt is required only for

Cobalt is required only for ruminants as the rumen microbes will synthesize cobalamin.

What is the most prominent human vitamin deficiency?

Folic Acid (B9). Vitamin B12 enhances the conversion of folic acid to tetrahydrofolic acid, which is required for the synthesis of purine and pyrimidine, which are required for DNA synthesis and cell replication.

Which vitamin is ascorbic acid?

Vitamin C

Which animals cannot synthesize vitamin C from glucose?

Ascorbic acid can be synthesized from glucose by all mammals except primates and guinea pigs. Therefore, there is no requirement for livestock species.

What are the signs of scurvy?

Impaired wound healing, capillary bleeding, faulty bone formation, and anemia.

What vitamin also functions as an antioxidant?

Vitamin C also functions as an antioxidant, reducing oxidative stress.

(t/f) minerals are inorganic

True. Minerals are inorganic elements that are essential for the animal body's physiological functions and metabolic processes.

What are the functions of minerals?

• Expression and regulation of genes and enzyme systems that regulate cellular function

• Activity and functionality of vitamins

• Osmotic balance

• Detoxification

• Immunity

• Cell membrane function

• Acid-base balance and regulation

• Structural support and growth

How are minerals classified?

Macro or micro (trace)

The classification is based on the amounts needed in the diet and not based on their importance for physiological functions.

Know the micro/macro minerals

Macrominerals are minerals that occur in appreciable amounts in the animal body and are required in large quantities (>0.01%) in the diet.

• Calcium

• Phosphorous

• Magnesium

• Sulfur

• Sodium

• Potassium

• Chloride

Microminerals – required in trace (<0.01%) amounts

• Manganese

• Zinc

• Iron

• Copper

• Selenium

• Iodine

• Cobalt

• Chromium

Minerals are added to the diet in their _ form

Minerals cannot be added to a diet in their elemental forms but rather need to be added as salts that are combined with other minerals (ex. NaCl, CaCO3).

Can minerals provide energy?

No

Where is most calcium and phosphorus found in the body?

Both function as structural components in the animal body. Approximately 99% of the Ca and 80% of the P in the animal body occur in bones and teeth as a compound called hydroxyapatite.

What are the functions of calcium?

The other 1% of Ca is distributed in cellular fluids, where they are involved in different metabolic and physiologic activities such as blood coagulation, nerve impulse and cell permeability maintenance, activation of certain enzymes, muscle contraction, or serving as activators of the ion channels.

What form is phosphorus found in cereal grains?

Cereal grains are rich in P but are in the bound form and the availability from bound sources varies from 20-60%.

Who lack the enzyme to split and liberate phosphorus in the diet?

Monogastric animals lack the enzyme to release P from the bound form, so if you hear phosphorous in the diet of a monogastric animal, it is always the unbound form. Ruminants produce the enzyme to split and liberate P.

What form is phosphorus found in the diet of monogastrics?

The unbound form.

What is homeostasis?

The maintenance of a steady state of circulating blood plasma calcium.

What serves as the storehouse of minerals?

Bone serves as the storehouse of minerals, especially Ca and P. Thus, imbalances lead to structural deformities in animals as well as eggshell quality in egg-laying hens.

What disease can result in young animals due to a lack of vitamin D?

Rickets

What does osteomalacia cause?

It occurs in adult animals with a Ca-deficient diet causing brittle, demineralized bones.

What is milk fever caused by? What can it cause?

Milk fever or eclampsia is due to a severe Ca deficiency when nursing. This can cause tetany and convulsions. Providing a low-calcium diet during the dry period in cows is recommended to minimize the incidence of milk fever by stimulating the endocrine activity so that when lactation begins, Ca mobilization from bones increases due to increased PTH secretion.

What is the term for osteomalacia in chickens?

Cage layer fatigue, which mainly affects caged chickens that are at a high level of egg production.

What is the term for eating abnormal things?

Pica. Animals deficient in P often develop abnormal chewing and eating behaviors, which is termed pica. High fluoride interferes with P digestion and absorption

What nutritional abnormality is caused by low-quality hay?

Excess P and low Ca are common situations in animals fed grain-based diets and low-quality hay or in pets fed homemade meat-based diets. Developmental bone-related disorders occur in young horses and large breeds of dogs fed high-energy and Ca-supplemented diets.

What should the dietary Ca:P ratio be?

The dietary Ca:P ratio should be 1:1 or 2:1 for optimum bone health.

What is the 3rd most abundant mineral in the body?

Magnesium is the third most abundant element in the body.

Where does Mg carbonate?

It is present in the body as phosphates and carbonates in bone and in liver and skeletal muscle cells (where it is involved in providing cell structure).

What increases the release of Mg from bone?

The homeostatic control of Mg is not well understood but PTH increases the release from bone. Both nitrogen and K inhibit Mg absorption.

What type of diet can inhibit Mg absorption in ruminants?

In ruminants, a high-protein diet inhibits Mg absorption.

What is grass tetany? When does it typically occur?

Grass tetany is due to grazing lush grass that is low in Mg but high in K and N. It interferes with absorption in the gi tract. Symptoms include an inability to stand, stiff muscle convulsions, and then death.

What are the two main sulfur containing amino acids?

The largest portion of S in the body is found with S-containing amino acids (methionine and cysteine).

When is a high-sulfur containing amino acid recommended?

A high S-containing amino acid is generally recommended in the diets of birds during rapid feather growth as well as in the diets of sheep for wool growth.

What are signs of sulfur deficiencies?

• Reduced feather growth

• Reduced wool growth

• Reduced weight gain

Sulfur toxicity is an issue in which animals?

Ruminants. Toxicity is not an issue as intestinal absorption is very low.

What minerals are classified as electrolytes?

Sodium, Potassium, and Chlorine.

What is the function of electrolytes?

These three minerals are electrolytes and help in creating an ionic balance and in keeping cells alive. They play a vital role in the acid-base balance (pH maintenance in the blood and tissue), cell membrane signal transduction, and osmotic pressure in intra- and extracellular fluids.

(t/f) electrolytes are stored in the body

False. The minerals cannot be stored and need to be supplied in the diet daily. Salt (NaCl) is added to animals’ diets and used as a vehicle to deliver other trace elements.

What muscle is potassium important for?

K provides osmotic force within the cells, which maintains fluid volume. Cellular K is also involved in several enzymatic reactions. Maintaining potassium balance is important for the normal functioning of the heart muscle.