Cognitive Sciences

What are the two main types of brain cells?

Glia and Neurons

What is the function of glial cells?

Support cells that play structural and metabolic roles in maintaining the brain.

What is the function of neurons?

Neurons perform computations and form the foundation of mental function.

What is the cell body of a neuron?

The large center of the cell that contains all machinery needed to keep the cell alive.

What are dendrites?

Inputs to a nerve cell that allow for the mathematical integration and analysis of signals.

What is the function of an axon?

Acts as the output wire for the neuron, broadcasting outputs of dendritic computations.

What is the nerve terminal (axon terminal)?

The contact point between neurons, maximized for computational flexibility.

What is a synapse?

The junction between an axon terminal and a dendrite allowing calculations by receiving neurons.

What are ions?

Atoms or molecules with a net electric charge.

What is electric charge?

A basic property of matter carried by elementary particles that affects their interaction with electric or magnetic fields.

What is the neuronal membrane?

Restricts flow of chemicals in and out of the cell and contains channels for water-based chemicals.

What is diffusion in the movement of ions?

Ions in a solution move constantly and distribute evenly from high to low concentration regions.

How does electricity relate to the movement of ions?

Opposite charges attract, while like charges repel, creating electric potential across membranes.

What is resting membrane potential?

The stable equilibrium created by diffusion and electricity, stabilizing sodium levels in the cell.

What are neurotransmitters?

Chemicals that temporarily open ion channels on dendrites, changing electrical voltage across membranes.

What is an action potential?

A wave that propagates down the axon, triggered by voltage-gated ion channels opening.

What is the firing rate of a neuron?

The rate at which action potentials are generated, related to dendritic voltage.

How does the brain encode negative signals and limited precision?

By limiting firing rates and involving multiple neurons to overcome precision restrictions.

What is the metabolic cost of information transmission?

The energy required for action potentials, neurotransmitter release, and dendritic maintenance.

What is information transmission without spikes?

Communication within the first two layers of retinal neurons occurs without spikes.

Why does the brain use spikes?

To achieve accuracy, speed, and distance in communication.

What are the main subdivisions of the brain?

Telencephalon, Metencephalon, and Brain stem.

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

Encodes values of options, receiving and sending outputs in response to cortical input.

What is the cerebral cortex?

A large sheet with 6 layers serving various functions; contains grey matter (cell bodies) and white matter (axons).

What is the amygdala responsible for?

Processes fear and responds to sensory inputs connected to somatic responses.

What are the main types of neuroscience research methods?

Measurement and manipulation techniques used to study brain function and behavior.

What factors determine the choice of research method?

Temporal resolution, spatial resolution, and invasiveness.

What is the absolute threshold?

The minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be reliably detected.

What is the difference threshold?

The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be reliably detected.

What is Weber's law?

A constant ratio between change and base is used to describe the difference threshold.

What are the assumptions of Fechner's law?

Weber's law is valid and JNDs represent equal psychological increments.

What is Steven's law?

Describes sensation magnitude estimation based on variations in stimulus intensity.

What is the perception of numerosity?

The ability to count, with easy counting for small numbers but difficulty for larger ones.

What factors influence numerosity perception?

Regular spacing leads to overestimation, while distance and magnitude effects affect discriminability.

What is the mental compression of large numbers?

We tend to perceive large numbers according to a logarithmic scale.

How do we perceive the number line?

We associate larger numbers with the right side; perception evolves from logarithmic to linear with age.

What is Bayes' rule?

Formula for conditional probability that updates beliefs based on new evidence.

What is Bayesian updating?

Updating beliefs about a state of the world according to Bayes’ Rule.

How does Bayesian updating work for a continuous state of the world?

Involves modeling state as normal distribution, updating beliefs based on observed signals.

What is the Bayesian brain hypothesis?

The brain optimally integrates prior knowledge with noisy signals from reality.

What is the central tendency of judgment?

Judgments gravitate toward the mean, resulting in common overestimation and underestimation.

What is the fallacy about independence?

Mistakenly assuming two related events are independent.

What is the gambler's fallacy?

The belief that future probabilities are altered by past events.

What is the hot hand fallacy?

Believing that success in one event implies future successes.

What is the representativeness heuristic?

Judging probabilities based on how closely an outcome matches the typical case.

What is the law of small numbers?

Overestimating how well small samples represent larger populations.

What is the conjunction fallacy?

Overestimating the probability of a combination of events.

What is the planning fallacy?

Unrealistic underestimation of the time required to complete tasks.

What is the disjunction fallacy?

Underestimating the probability of at least one of multiple events occurring.

What is base-rate neglect?

Ignoring statistical base rates in favor of anecdotal evidence or conditional probabilities.

What is confirmation bias?

Interpreting information in a way that supports existing beliefs.

What is the availability heuristic?

Estimating probabilities based on how easily examples come to mind.

What is Sen’s α condition or Chernoff’s condition?

Preference consistency across different choice menus is required for rational decisions.

What is the opportunity cost fallacy?

Ignoring the value of what is forgone when making decisions.

What is the sunk cost fallacy?

Continuing an investment due to previously invested resources, despite lack of benefit.

What is the endowment effect?

Valuing owned items more highly than equivalent items not owned.

What is loss aversion?

Losses are perceived to have a greater emotional impact than equivalent gains.

What is anchoring?

Using arbitrary reference points as a basis for decision-making in the absence of solid data.

What is the compromise effect?

Choosing an option that represents a balance between two extremes.

What is the decoy and asymmetric dominance effect?

Preference for an option that appears better than another due to its relative position.

What is the independence of irrelevant alternatives?

Choice consistency should be maintained even with the introduction of a new, irrelevant alternative.

What is normalization in decision-making?

Re-expressing input values relative to other inputs.

What is pairwise normalization in decision-making?

Evaluating options based on their relative values in the context of available choices.

How does the brain apply normalization in decision-making?

By comparing input values to alternatives to inform choices.