Psychology

Psychology topics: major perspectives, doing research, biological, evolution, motivation and emotion, personality + stress and health.

Evolutionary Approach

The brain's wiring is part of our biological heritage and is well established at birth; helped promote survival.

Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)

What we say/do is only the tip of the iceberg; most desires are unknown, we are driven by unconscious forces. ID, EGO, SUPERGO

Behaviourism (Pavlov)

Concerned with how the environment (stimulus) shapes behaviour. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Cultural Perspective

The way an event is remembered can be shaped by the culture a person lives in; also influences a person's behaviour.

Cognitive Perspective

Main focus is on memory, thinking, remembering, perceiving and problem solving; memory is selective, and we remember only events we pay attention to.

Schemas

Cognitive perceptions/interpretations/assumptions that individuals use to make sense of their experience.

Variables

Anything that varies: temperament, amount of alcohol/drug use.

Random Sampling

Everyone has an equal chance of participating (using a random number generator).

Opportunity Sampling

Selecting anyone who's available and willing to take part; unlikely to generate a representative sample + results cannot be generalized.

Volunteer sampling

Participants choose to become part of a study because they volunteer when asked; unlikely to be generalized as people are more likely to have a certain personality type.

Correlation

Allows us to establish whether there's any relationship between 2 variables. POSITIVE, NEGATIVE, NO CORRELATION

The Research Process

1) Initial observation/question
2) Form a hypothesis
3) Design a study
4) Analyse the data and draw conclusions
5) Report findings
6) Consider questions drawn by the research
7) Act on open questions to research conclusions and formulate further research

Quantitative methods

- Seek objectivity
- Aim to explain cause and effect
- Use numbers to reach common consensus + mathematical calculations that allow researchers to understand data.

Qualitative methods

- Explores subjectivity
- No attempt to be objective and to find a universal truth
- A hermeneutic approach: trying to understand particular people in depth rather than to generalize from findings
- Uses interviews, surveys, longitudinal studies, observations, narrative research.

Ethical issues when conducting research with human participants

- Informed consent
- Voluntary participation
- Confidentiality
- Anonymity when possible
- No physical and psychological harm
- Respect and dignity
- Caution when working with vulnerable groups and sensitive topics
- Risk of harm when working with humans
- Right to withdraw
- APA, BPS and University guidlines

Experimental research method

- Experimenter manipulates the IV and measures results on the DV
- Random allocation
- Resulting differences are concluded to be due to the IV

Measurements and Lab experiments

- Usually requires making statements about amounts/quantities
- Can involve rating scales
- Outcome is usually in the form of numbers that must be summarized and interpreted using statistics.

Laboratory Experiment

Pros: - high control
- repeatable + reliable
- uses sophisticated measuring equipment to measure effects precisely
- more control over variables.

Cons: - loss of validity (especially ecological validity)
- demand characteristics and investigator effects

Field experiment

Pros: - improved ecological validity
- reduction of demand characteristics

Cons: - less control over IV and measuring DV, with addition of EV's
- results cannot be generalized
- often more costly

Dependent Variable (DV)

What the researcher is trying to measure + what can be manipulated.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable in the experiment that's specifically manipulated

Natural experiment

Pros: - reduction of demand characteristics
- investigator doesn't intervene
- IV is naturally occurring.

Cons: - loss of control - the investigator doesn't control the IV
- a cause/effect relationship is difficult to establish

Qualitative Research

- Data can be received from long answer questions, often from interviews.
- Based on/Influenced by personal feelings, tastes or opinions.

Quantitative Research

- Data which is based on specific information.
- Objective: seeks precise measurement and analysis of target concepts.

The Human Brain

Controls your behaviours, beliefs, personality, habits, abilities, emotions, memories and hopes.

Cartesian Dualism

The body is like a machine. We act in response to the external environment. Although they interact, the body and the mind are seperate.

Neurons

- Cells transmitting signals to and from the brain.
- Consists of a cell body with branching dendrites (information receivers) and a projection called axon, that conducts nerve signals (takes information away from the cell body).
- Myelin coats and insulates acons and serves to increase transmission speed

Efferent/Motor Neurons

Nerves carrying messages outwards from the CNS (exiting); carry messages from the brain/spinal cord to body organs.

Afferent/Sensory Neurons

Nerves carrying messages inward towards the CNS (arriving); help carrying messages from organs to the brain/spinal cord.

Simple reflex action

When you touch a hot surface with your hand, your brain tells the nerves in your hand to retract it, so as to avoid severe damage. This is the simple reflex action; it allows rapid response for urgent action.

Myelin

- Lipid layer covering axons.
- Insulates neurons and speeds up transmission of action potentials.
- If immune system breaks down, the myelin starts to deteriorate and this can result in MS and other neurological conditions.S

The Synapse

- Gap between neurons, connecting dendrites to axon.
- Allows messages to travel from one neuron to another.
- Communicate chemically

Neurotransmitters

- Chemicals release one neuron (pre-synaptic neuron) which triggers a response in another neuron (post-synaptic neuron).
- A neurotransmitter signal travels from a neuron, across the synapse, to the next neuron.
- Neurons are selective in the kind of neurotransmitters which they respond to.
(EX: Dopamine - movement, attention, learning; Serotonin - mood, sleep, appetite, impulsive and aggressive behaviour; GABA - excitation and anxiety)

Agonists and Antagonists

- Agonists: drugs that enhance a neurotransmitter's activity by mimicking the neurotransmitter (Nicotine).
- Antagonist: drugs that prevent the activity of the neurotransmitter by blocking the receptors or mimicking neurotransmitters (Haldol).

Recording Brain Activity

- Trans-cranial magnetic stimuation (TMS): allows us to temporarily stimulate parts of the brain to evaluate extent of damage following injury and disorders affecting facial and cranial nerves and spinal cord.
- Electroencephalogram (EEG): a record of the brain's electrical activity recorded by placing electrodes on the scalp that can be used to detect abnormalities in the brain.

The Central Nervous System

- Made up of the brain + spinal cord.
- Protected by bones, tissues and cerebrospinal fluid.

Peripheral Nervous System

- Somatic: controls the skeletal muscles.
- Autonomic: receives information from and controls the internal organs.
- Sympathetic branch: mobilises the organism for physical action.
- Parasympathetic branch: restores the body's normal resting state.

The Brain

- Brain stem: the brain region at the top of the spinal cord.
- Cerebellum: controls musculr coordination and equilibrium.
- Cerebral cortex: the outermost layer of the forebrain.
- Cerebral hemisphere: one half (left or right) of the cerebrum, the topmost part of the brain.
- Hippocampus: plays a key role in memory and knowledge.

The 4 Lobes of the Brain

- Frontal lobe: important for planning, controlling throughts and behaviour.
- Parietal lobe: crucial for receiving information from the skin senses.
- Temporal lobe: important for hearing and many aspects of language use.
- Occipital lobe: crucial for processing visual information.

2 Hemispheres

- Left hemisphere: controls language skills.
- Right hemisphere: face recognition, artistic part, important for perceiving complex patterns.
- Connected by a bundle of fibres called corpu callosum.
- Parts of the brain are contra-lateral (opposite sides).

Plasticity

- The capacity of the brain to alter its structure and function. It does this by growing new neurons and by having existing neurons change their pattern of connection. This happens everyday as we learn new facts, acquire new skills, and gain new perspectives.

Chromosomes

- Complex structure in cell's nucleus carrying genetic information in molecules called DNA.
- We have 46 chromosomes - 23 from each parent.

Homozygous and Heterozygous

- Homozygous: 2 identical alleles at a particular gene locus.
- Heterozygous: 2 different alleles at a particular gene locus.

Charles Darwin's findings

- Natural selection: organisms with attributes advantageous in a given environment are more likely to survive + Camoflauge.
- Evolution favours organisms that are better adapted to survive within a given environment.
- Certain variants survive and reproduce at higher rates. Traits associated with a superior survival and reproduction are passed from parents and offspring and are more likely to live. I

Intelligence in twins

- The relatedness of dizygotic twins is similar to that of siblings. On the other hand, monozygotic twins have very similar intelligence levels, whether raised together or not. The variations may be due to genetic factors.

Human mate choice

- Both partners are selective.
- Men focus more on attractiveness and choose younger females to ensure reproductive success. Women focus on social status and prefer older men for security of self.
- Human behaviour is influenced by genetic and cultural factors.

Abraham Maslow

Hierarchy of needs:
1) Physiological- hunger, thirst, warmth, elimination of fatigue, pain.
2) Safety- protection from elements, crime, financial hardship.
3) Love and belonging- love, acceptance, intimate relationships, friends, social groups.
4) Esteem- achievement, prestige, status, competence, approval.
5) Self-actualisation- fulfilment of one's unique potential.

According to this, we're motivated to achieve a set of needs. As the lower needs are met, we tend to move upwards to meet the next, higher level needs. The lower needs are very powerful, as they need to be satisfied first before going onto higher needs.

Humanistic theory

Behaviour motivated by conscious desires for personal growth; people will tolerate pain, hunger, and other sources of tension to achieve personal fulfilment.

Psychological motives

- Need for affection and belonging.
- Need for achievement, self-esteem + social recognition (mastery motives): people need to feel involved and to feel that this involvement is tipping the balance somewhere.
- Need for independence.

Conscious motives: feelings and thoughts within the awareness of the individual.
Unconscious motives: the individual is unable to symbolise into thoughts and feelings.

Hunger

- Automatically monitor nutrient quantity in the body and are motivated to eat when energy stores fall below critical level.
- An internal appestat helps maintain a relative steady weight.

Liver: when an organism hasn't eaten for a while, blood glucose levels start to drop. Before this happens, the liver takes action by converting glycogen and glucose.
Fat: since animals can't be sure food will be available when they need it, they eat enough to satisfy current needs and store nutrients for later.
Satiety detectors: sensors controlling amount of food intake and providing 'feeling full' sensation.
- Damage to these areas can result in starvation/death or other health complications due to eating voraciously.

Dual-centre theory: hypothesis that area in lateral hypothalamus acts as 'on' centre or hunger initiator while another in the ventromedial hypothalamus is the 'off' centre, the terminator of eating.

Culturaland cognitive aspects:
- Homeostasis fails to explain why people develop eating disorders.
- Humans are too complex to be given a simple homeostasis explanation.
- Role of culture and psychological factors in hunger (eg: eating dessert when full despite absence of internal hunger cue).
- Culture influences feeding patterns and amount of food.

Obesity

- Heavily influenced by a number of interconnected factors including genetic, physiological, metabolic, social, behavioural, and cultural aspects.

- Overweight is defined as body mass index (BMI) between the upper 85th to 95th percentiles while Obesity is defined as BMI greater than the 95th percentile.

Obesity causes:
- Sedentary lifestyles
- Increased use of public transport/cars and decreased activity levels.
- Computer and video games.
- Hectic lifestyle and less time to prepare healthy meals.
- Tight work schedules and long working hours.
- Increased stress and depression.
- Socioeconomic factors.
- Unhealthy coping strategies.
- Fast food chains.
- Genetic factors.

Evolutionary Perspective:
- Man physiologically adapted to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
- Capacity to store fat advantageous for survival in such a community but this has become a risk factor for diseases in the present.

Obesity risk factors:
- Personality/psychological factors
- Media
- Family influence
- Subcultures within a society
- Depression
- Avoidance of social interactions
- Harm avoidance traits (excessive worrying, anxiety, fear, doubt and pasivism)
- Using food to feel in control
- Rigid thinking
- Sense of self-worth based on weight
- Perfectionism
- Poor impulse control
- Trauma
- Inadequate coping skills
- Heightened sensitivity/Inability to cope with negative evaluations
- Genetics (though link is unclear)

Media and Culture:
- Culture bound syndrome - the belief that a focus on body image will help the person be more popular, assertive, have a better job + social status.
- The belief that having an ideal body is the true answer to all problems in Western culture.

The role of the surrounding context:
- Education level
- Socio-economic status
- Participation in physical exercise declines with age
- Neighbourhood and safety
- Cycling and walking may be discouraged in some contexts
- Climate

Feelings of being fat:
- Debates about individual responsibility versus genetic predisposition.
- Concern about dieting in the Western world, especially among women, who show a greater difference between ideal and current body image.
- Problem of eating disorders in Western world.

Social Learning Theory - People imitate people they admire (media, peers) -> Vicarious reinforcement (later reward for gaining the look).