History 1010 Final

Tenochtitlan

Capital city of Aztec Empire

Huitzilopochtli

Aztec God of war; led travelers to the south and told them where to stop through an eagle and a snake

Customs for male Aztecs

Every one of them trained to be a warrior; led them to be a valuable resource for wealthy city-states as they acted as mercenaries

Aztecs rise to power

Warrior men working as mercenaries rose up and dominated their former employers

Chinampa

Lake on which the Aztec Empire was initially built

Pochteca

merchants that served as the diplomatic corps for the Aztec kings

Female Aztecs

Ran the home economies, the marketing, the bartering, and the trade

Aztec Religion

Temple based; highly ritualistic; polytheistic; operated on a Mayan calendrical system; involved human sacrifice

Great Incan accomplishment

Built roads to carry people, ideas, goods, and diseases

Quipu/Khipu

Incan way of keeping track of records; some argue that it was like a calculator, others argue that it was a non traditional language

Terracing

Tactic Incans used on their mountainous land to widen valleys and slice sides of mountains to provide increased land for crop growth

Cuzco

Capital city of Incan Empire; famous for massive stone-carved architecture

Pachacuti and Topa (Tupac)

Established the Incan Empire; led it in its golden age through military, trade and resources

Inca Religion

Polytheistic; included Inti the Sun God/Chief God and Viracocha the creator God and father of Inti

Ottomans

Turkic people; came from Central Asia. Saw themselves as Ghazi Muslim warriors and followed the prophet of Muhammed

Ottomans rise to power

Initially hired as mercenaries during Christian wars, but when the Christians would try not to pay, Ottomans would take their land

Mehmet II

Ottoman Empire Ruler; captured Constantinople, Serbia, and Greece. Began process of forming the Qanun/Kanun

Qanun/Kanun

Secular law (no religious/spiritual basis) formed by Mehmet II in the Ottoman Empire

Selim I

Also known as Selim the grim; ruler of the Ottoman Empire. Fought his brothers for the sultan position. Doubled the size of the empire by obtaining East Anatolia, Syria, Egypt, and Hijaz. Known as “protector of the sanctuaries” because he gained control of Mecca and Medina

Sulayman the Magnificent

Ottoman Ruler; son of Selim the grim. Known as “the lawgiver” for enforcing Kanun heavily. Fought several wars with the Hapsburgs. Expanded to Iraq through war with Persia. Established economic prosperity through domination of trade routes. Wife was Hurrem Sultan (Roxelana)

Hurrem Sultan (Roxelana)

Wife of Sulayman the magnificent (Ottoman Empire); Originally a slave, but ended up charming Sulayman and becoming pregnant. The two married, which was very uncommon for the time. Used her wealth to help the poor and build hospitals, schools, and soup kitchens. Stayed in Istanbul and kept things going while Sulayman was off fighting. Accused of witchcraft after death

Safavid Realm

Enemies to the Ottoman Empire, Shi’ite Muslims. Led by Shah Ismail

Shah Ismail

Leader of Safavid Realm from Eastern Anatolia. Father of modern Iran. Has fanatical followers called Quizilbash. Negative attitude towards firearms; Defeated by Ottomans at Chaldiran

Kaiser Karl V

Hapsburg Ruler

Habsburg Holy Roman Empire Split

France, Germany, and Holy Roman Empire itself (split up by Charlemagne sons)

Imperial College

Process where emperor of the Holy Roman Empire was elected; made German nobility (4 princes/kings and 3 bishops) who would elect someone, sometimes based on merit and sometimes on bloodline. Electors wanted to keep the emperor weak so that they could gain their own power, and it worked for a while

Charles V

Member of Habsburg family. Due to several different families marrying into each other, he ended up becoming the king of Germany, Italy, and Spain , as well as the Archduke of Austria, the Lord of the Netherlands, and the Duke of Burgandy. Ardent defender of Roman Catholic Christianity during the European reformation period. Renounced Throne

Francis I

King of France; formed an alliance with the Turkic Ottomans to bring Charles V down. Very powerful

Phillip II

Song of Charles V. Became king of Spain and Portugal. Passionate about Christianity like his father, hero of counter reformation. Built a Spanish armada and attempted an English invasion

John Wycliffe

Came before Martin Luther. Argued that scriptures shouldn’t equate wealth to superiority. Believed that money donated to the church should go to the poor, not expansion. Argued in favor of the authority of the bible over the popes. Translated the bible from Latin to English so that non-Latin speakers could now participate

Jan Hus

Inspired by Wycliffe; against greed and wealth in the church, also believed that the bible had authority over the pope. Preached and wrote in Czech instead of Latin

Martin Luther

Nailed 95 theses to church door (appalled by abuse of church and acquisition of wealth). Excommunicated. Believed in priesthood of all believers, not just Catholic clergy. Translated bible to German, which was especially impactful because he had access to the printing press

John Calvin

Inspired by Luther and Wycliffe to an extent. Emphasized salvation due to the grace of God and no other reason such as sacraments. Believed God had already decided who would be saved and who would be damned. Influenced puritans and Presbyterians, who have impacted US Christianity

Henry VIII

Founder of the Church of England/Anglican Church who wanted to get a divorce. Switched the language of the services to English. Clerics were now allowed to marry. Southern Baptism has roots with Anglican church

Counter Reformation

Roman Catholic Church fights back against Anglican church

Council of Trent

Series of meetings that decided what direction the church would take. Maintained core beliefs of church, but addressed certain issues such as education of clergy and abuse within the church. Established the Jesuit order, which led to education of clergy

Jesuit Order

Established by the Council of Trent; ensured strong education of clergy

Roman Inquisition

Goal was to find protestants and convert them back to Catholicism. Many protestants resisted, which led to events such as imprisonment and witch burning. Moderately effective in Spain, France, and Italy. Less so in Germany and England

Huguenots

French Calvinists who believed in the emphasis of God’s grace for salvation. Usually wealthy. Disagreed with Roman Catholics. Controlled lots of land and wealth, giving them lots of power despite their lower numbers

Holy League

Christian nobility opposed to Huguenots (killed several of them)

Edict of Nantes

Declares that Huguenots are still free to practice, though Henry VIII has converted back to Catholicism

Louis XIV

Revoked Edict of Nantes; believed that Roman Catholic Christianity was the only valid religion

The Thirty Years’ War

Resumption of hostilities in Germany; first European war featuring modern armies

Treaty of Westphalia

Treaty that ended the thirty years’ war; religion of local nobility would determine religion of general locality

English Civil War

Minimum of 4 sides. Religion, royal power, and taxation were all factors. Resulted in the execution of Charles I.

Oliver Cromwell

Fought for parliament/representative government in English civil war. Established himself as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of British Isles. Republican government failed and Charles II took over

The Glorious Revolution 1688

Establishes that England is firmly and forever protestant. Power shifted from the monarch to parliament and England became a constitutional monarchy.

Erasmus

Renaissance Humanist. Believed that all sound learning was secular. Critic of scholasticism (higher education involving Roman Catholic theology) and proponent of humanist/classicist education. Re-edited new testament and argued for reform of church to save church. Also argues for text-critical study of Christian past (used language study for original meaning)

Lorenzo Valla

Got in trouble for writing things that were “offenses to the dignity of history”. Developed a book of Latin grammar that became the standard. Claimed that certain historical sources such as Livy were wrong about details in Roman history. Defended some Pagan philosophy. Didn’t believe that the Apostle’s creed was actually written by the apostle (disciple) of Jesus. Used declamatio (form of public speaking) to discredit the Donation of Constantine. Composed new critical edition of bible

Philology

Study of history of languages/changes over time

Textual Criticism

Academic technique of restoring texts to their original form

Medieval Scholasticism

Methodologies of medieval European scholarship; goal was to focus on Theology to get people into Heaven. Tried to reconcile faith with human reason and preserve knowledge rather than expanding it. Rejected pre-Christian Pagan past as irrelevant.

Fall of Constantinople

Greek scholars fled to Italy and brought libraries with them; led to rediscovery of Pagan Latin and Greek works in Europe. More Europeans learned Greek and could read the New Testament in original language(s)

Modern Humanism

Embracing ration and science as opposed to religion and spirituality

Medieval Humanism

Pursuing rational and scientific investigation following the Greeks and the Romans while also acknowledging the importance/validity of religious faith.

Black Death

Bubonic plague; caused black sores all over body. Killed 25-30 million in Europe (a quarter of the total population). Caused great social upheaval that helped to bring an end to medieval European order

Renaissance Italy Norms

Commerce/finance surpassed land as a source of wealth and importance. Merchant classes become more wealthy and nobility with land weaken because they can’t produce as many crops with the black death going around. Money spent on public works to keep commoners complacent (money spent on art helped enhance fame/reputation of Italy). Donations to church helped people look past the sin of loaning with interest. Small states gained greater independence

Petrarch

From Italian renaissance; believed that scientific and religious learning were compatible. Grandfather of modern history in a sense. Searched for ancient Roman Hellenistic past. Influenced by St. Augustine. Father of Renaissance Humanism

Boccaccio

Wrote the Decameron, Ancestry of the Pagan Gods, and Concerning Famous Women

The Decameron

Book written by Boccaccio; 10 young men and women tried to escape the city due to the plague. Stayed in a villa in Tuscany and took turns being kings/queens for the day - they could pick themes and tell stories for the day too. Included lots of crude subjects such as sex and church criticism. Inspired modern Italian, which was previously considered no better than “Bad Latin”.

Venice

Italian state that obtained wealth through shipping goods to different areas. Had a republican form of government known as the commune (doge was leader, elected and checked by councils). As close as Europe got to a real republic at the time. Led by Francesco Foscari

Florence

Italian state. Woolen clothing was a basis of wealth. Set up a constitutional government in which only the middle class (merchants) could serve known as the ordinances of justice. De Medici family became powerful and invested in art/scholarship; inspired Machiavelli’s “The Prince,” a work of early political science

Duchy of Milan

Wealth derived from wool and silk trade. Trade guilds were powerful. Led by popular dictators called dukes. Produced guns and artillery. Cruelly led by the Sforza family, though they were patrons of scholarship and art

Ferdinand and Isabella

Married and united Christian Spain under one source. Expelled the Jews from Spain (many went to Portugal or the Islamic world)

Surrender of Granada

Final Muslim outpost in Spain surrendered to Christians

Spanish Reconquista

Christians taking land back from Muslims

Kingdom of Portugal

Conquered by Muslims, but there were always Christian rebellions. Reached Southern tip of Africa for trade; encountered many Muslims and decided it was their job to convert them to Christianity

Vasco de Gama

Portuguese admiral; one of the first Europeans to successfully sail across the world and back to Europe. Established trading posts in Africa and converted non-believers to Roman Catholic Christianity. Known for overpowering Muslim ships, taking their cargo, and burning them. Remembered as a villain in East Africa and India, but a hero in Portugal

Christopher Columbus

Sailed for the Portuguese; originally from the Italian republic of Genoa. Incredibly skilled captain. Came up with (or followed) the idea of sailing West to reach the East. Tried to pitch the idea to King John of Portugal, but he wasn’t completely interested. Brutally racist and responsible for many deaths IRL

Washington Irving

Wrote the hagiography of Christopher Columbus. Claimed that people thought the earth was flat though that was already disproven. Claimed that Columbus got lost when he actually knew where he was going. Claimed that the hand of God drove him to America.

Historiographical Presentism

Taking values/issues from today and applying them to the past

Leif Erikson

First European to discover the new world

Moctezuma II (Montezuma)

Great warrior who became emperor of Aztecs (regarded as divine). Tried to centralize power from individual states, which made him less popular. Increased taxation (gold, feathers, animals, human tribute). Wanted to get to know the strength of the Spanish army before striking, but this led them to strike first (led by Cortes)

Cortes

Claimed new land for Spain (specifically Charles V) in the new world. Developed encomienda. Invaded Aztec capital and pounced upon Montezuma. Had to flee the Aztec empire after putting a cross on one off their temples. Many indigenous groups began to fight back. Led the Aztecs to fall

La Malinche/Dona Marina/Malintzin

Indigenous person given to Cortes as a slave/gift. Spoke 2 or 3 native languages and also learned Spanish very quickly, Became a translator for Cortes. Basically negotiated the surrender of Mexico and Central America to Spain. Wasn’t trying to help the Spanish so much as she wanted to undermine the Aztecs. Had a son by Cortes named Martin (often considered first person of true Mexican heritage due to the Spanish and indigenous roots).

Encomienda System

Spanish labor system where conquerors were granted the labor of conquered indigenous people

Bartolome de Las Casas

Soldier and conquistador. Granted piece of land and people who lived on the land (encomienda systm) by Spanish crown. Had spiritual awakening, left encomienda life behind, and entered priesthood. Convinced some other Spanish officials to change their policies involving indigenous people (including Charles V). Wrote history works that were forgiving towards indigenous people.

Pizarro

Conquered the Incan empire and overthrew previous ruler, Atahualpa, by pulling out firearms. Took silver from emperor in form of art and melted it down. Atahualpa converted to Christianity and the Incan empire fell.

Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala

Descended from Inca nobility, knew Incan and Spanish. Worked with the Spanish and the conquistadors. Wrote a 1000 page letter arguing for better treatment of indigenous people in the new world, though it never reached the intended audience to make a difference. One of the only historical sources from an indigenous perspective, though probably not entirely reliable.

At. Augustine

Floridians claim that its the oldest city in the US

Ranged weapons

Any form of projectile (spears, arrows, rock, etc.)

English Long Bow

handcrafted, incredibly tall. Could penetrate armor from a few hundred yards away. Could get shots off very quickly. Required lots of muscular training. 400 yard range

Turkish Composite Bow

Traditionally shot off of horseback. Lots of penetration and knockdown power. Weapon of the Elite

Italian crossbow

Previously in Europe, strictly considered an outlaw’s weapon

Chinese Daoists

Made early gunpowder weapons famous. Tu Huo Qiang fired an early gun projectile through a bamboo tube

Tartars

Group of Mongols. Nickname given because Europeans thought they forged their weapons in Hell.

Gunpowder Empires

Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal

Ottoman Bombards

Siege cannon used to smash medieval fortification. Took 60 oxen to move, could only be fired 7 times a day. Used in battle of Talikota. Known as the “king of the battlefield”

Embracing of small firearms

Ottomans were some of the first to adopt small firearms. Despite accusations of not being manly enough, they embraced them

Janissary

Prisoners of war in the Ottoman empire who were taken to spend their life in military training, as well as basic reading, writing, and Islam

Arequebus/Harquebus

Widely used by Ottomans; included “hook” stabilizer and shooting stick. Range less than 200 meters. Firing mechanism was a matchlock (fuse had to be lit to set the gun off)

Jan Ziska

Hussite rebel who never lost a fight on his own; army made up of peasants with farm tools who moved with religious zeal.

Wheel-lock firing mechanism

Like the spinning wheel that you use on a lighter; safer and more effective than match lock, but it was very expensive and required skilled craftsmen

Flint lock firing mechanism

Faster than match lock and cheaper than wheel lock. Could be kept loaded.

Gustavus Asolphus

Lutheran Christian king of Sweden. Professionalized government service. Inherited wars against Denmark, Poland, and Russia. Supported Public education. Father of Modern Warfare. Instilled a sense of nationalism in his army (rather than mercenary army). Cross-trained soldiers so they could do each other’s jobs. Professional Officer corps (as opposed to officers who inherited rank)