Cognitive Review: IB Psychology HL

Multi-Store Model of Memory

A model that explains memory in three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, emphasizing the flow of information between them.

Sensory Memory

The first stage in memory, where sensory information is briefly stored for a very short duration, typically less than one second.

Short-Term Memory

A memory store where information is kept temporarily (usually for 15-30 seconds) and can hold around 7 items.

Long-Term Memory

The memory store where information is stored for an extended period, from minutes to a lifetime, and has an almost unlimited capacity.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list more easily than the middle items, consisting of the primacy and recency effects.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to better recall the first items in a list due to increased rehearsal and transfer to long-term memory.

Recency Effect

The tendency to better recall the last items in a list, which are still held in short-term memory.

Working Memory Model

A model that explains short-term memory as an active process with multiple components, including the central executive, phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

Automatic Processing

The unconscious encoding of information, such as the location of objects or habitual actions, without requiring conscious effort.

Working Memory

A system for temporarily storing and manipulating information needed for complex tasks such as reasoning, comprehension, and learning.

Central Executive

The component of the working memory model that controls attention and coordinates the activities of the phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

Phonological Loop

A component of working memory that processes and stores auditory information, such as sounds and speech.

Visual-Spatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory responsible for processing and storing visual and spatial information.

Episodic Buffer

A component of working memory that integrates information from the phonological loop, visual-spatial sketchpad, and long-term memory to create a coherent episode or experience.

Schema Theory

A theory suggesting that memory is influenced by schemas, or mental structures that organize knowledge and guide memory retrieval.

Schema

A mental framework or structure that organizes and interprets information based on past experiences and knowledge.

Assimilation

The process of incorporating new information into an existing schema without changing the structure of the schema.

Accommodation

The process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information that doesn't fit within the existing schema.

Top-Down Processing

A cognitive process that starts with higher-level thinking and uses prior knowledge or expectations to interpret sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

A cognitive process that starts with sensory information and builds up to a final perception, without relying on prior knowledge or expectations.

Script Schema

A type of schema that organizes information about a sequence of events or actions, such as going to a restaurant or attending a meeting.

Social Schema

A type of schema that organizes information about social roles, groups, and relationships.

Self Schema

A type of schema that organizes information about the self, including beliefs and perceptions about one's characteristics and behaviors.

Encoding

The process of converting sensory input into a format that can be stored in memory.

Storage

The process of maintaining encoded information in memory over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information from memory into conscious awareness.

System 1 of Thinking

A fast, automatic, and unconscious mode of thinking that relies on intuition and heuristics for decision-making.

System 2 of Thinking

A slower, more deliberate, and conscious mode of thinking that involves reasoning and logic.

Normative Model

A decision-making model that assumes individuals make decisions based on rationality and the optimal outcome.

Descriptive Model

A decision-making model that describes how people actually make decisions, often incorporating biases and heuristics.

Theory of Planned Behavior

A theory that suggests that behavior is influenced by attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

Adaptive-Decision Framework

A model that emphasizes making decisions based on the available information and the context in which the decision is made, rather than optimizing for the best possible outcome.

Attribute-Based Decision Making

A decision-making strategy where decisions are based on specific attributes or features of the available options.

Alternative-Based Decision Making

A decision-making strategy where decisions are based on comparing alternative options as a whole, rather than focusing on specific attributes.

Reconstructive Memory

The process of reconstructing past memories by piecing together fragments of information, which may lead to distortions or inaccuracies.

Framing Effect

A cognitive bias where the way information is presented affects decision-making and judgment, even if the underlying facts are the same.

Illusory Correlation

The tendency to perceive a relationship between two variables when none actually exists, often influenced by stereotypes or expectations.

Glanzer and Cunitz

Investigated the serial position effect by having participants recall word lists either immediately or after a delay, showing primacy and recency effects that support the distinction between short-term and long-term memory in the multi-store model.

Sperling

Explored the capacity and duration of sensory memory using whole and partial report methods with letter arrays, revealing a large capacity but brief duration that supports the sensory memory component of the multi-store model

Baddeley 1996

Examined how word similarity affects memory by giving participants word lists varying in similarity, supporting the idea that different types of information are processed separately in working memory, in line with the working memory model

Baddeley, Lewis, Vallar

Tested the effects of articulatory suppression on verbal memory by having participants recall words while repeating irrelevant speech, showing interference with the phonological loop and supporting the working memory model

Anderson and Pichert

Studied schema influence on recall by having participants read a story from different perspectives and recall details, demonstrating how schemas influence what is remembered and supporting schema theory

Bransford and Johnson

Investigated the role of prior knowledge in comprehension by giving participants a vague passage with or without context, finding better recall with context and supporting the influence of schemas in encoding

Luce, Bettman, and Payne

Examined how decision-making strategies change under emotional load by asking participants to make choices about charity donations, showing that participants adapted strategies based on emotional stakes, supporting descriptive models of thinking

Albarracin et al

Investigated the predictive power of attitudes on behavior by meta-analyzing studies involving condom use intentions, showing attitudes, norms, and perceived control predicted behavior, supporting the theory of planned behavior

Loftus and Palmer

Studied the effect of question wording on eyewitness memory by showing car crash videos and asking speed questions with varying verbs, finding memory distortion based on leading language and showing reconstructive memory

McCloskey and Zaragoza

Tested memory accuracy after misinformation by showing participants an event followed by misleading info and testing recall, finding that memory was less distorted when misinformation options were not included, questioning the permanence of misinformation effects

Tversky and Kahneman

Investigated heuristics in decision-making by presenting scenarios involving probability judgments, finding reliance on heuristics like representativeness, showing that thinking often deviates from normative models

Chapman and Chapman

Studied confirmation bias in clinicians by presenting false correlations between symptoms and diagnoses, showing that people see expected patterns even when they're absent, demonstrating cognitive bias in judgment

Sharot

Explored the role of emotion in memory by scanning participants’ brains while recalling 9/11-related and neutral events, finding increased amygdala activation for emotional memories, supporting the idea that emotion enhances memory.

Neisser and Harsh

Investigated the accuracy of flashbulb memories by asking participants to recall the Challenger explosion after different time intervals, finding significant inaccuracies over time, challenging the reliability of emotional memories.

Rosser et al

Tested the cognitive effects of video game play by assessing laparoscopic surgeons' performance before and after gameplay, finding improved accuracy and efficiency, showing that technology use can enhance cognitive and motor functions.

Kaspersky Lab Digital Amnesia Surveys

Surveyed participants on digital device use and memory dependence, finding that people often forget information they assume is stored digitally, highlighting the cognitive impact of reliance on technology.