AP Psychology Unit 1, Part II: Research Methods (UPDATED)

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it-

"I knew it all along"

critical thinking

Is rationally deciding what to believe or what to do. When one rationally decides something, he or she evaluates information to see if it makes sense, whether it's coherent, and whether the argument is well founded on evidence.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to do

theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

operational definition

A statement of the procedures used to define research variables that is specific and allows research to be replicated

replication

replicate the original study

case study

An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

population

the whole group that you want to study and describe

random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

correlation

A measure of the relationship between two variables

correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables.

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process

random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

double-blind study

An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

experimental group

A subject or group of subjects in an testing environment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.

control group

In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated in an experiment

confounding variable

in an experiment, a type of type of extraneous variable; interferes directly with the outcome of a study.

dependent variable

the variables that is being measured

mode

Measure of central tendency that uses most frequently occurring score.

mean

Average

median

A measure of center in a set of numerical data.

range

Distance between highest and lowest scores in a set of data.

standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

normal curve

the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance; p-value

culture

Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.

informed consent

A written agreement to participate in a study made by an adult who has been informed of all the risks that participation may entail.

debriefing

A verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study

sample

A part of the population you are studying.

overconfidence

We tend to think we will perform better than we do.

hindsight

"knew it all along " phenomena

3 main components of scientific attitude

curiosity

skepticism

humility

disadvantage of a case study

overgeneralization - suggests that the results could be for everyone but they need more research to back it up

a theory is useful if :

- it effectively organizes a range of self-reports / observations and leads to a clear hypothesis that anyone can use to check a theory

- it stimulates research to lead to a revised theory that better organizes and predicts what we know

wording effect of a survey

the way a question or situation is presented affects how people feel about the matter (ex. better wording = more desired results)

positive correlation

two variable rise and fall together, such as height and weight

negative correlation

variables are related inversely, one goes up and the other goes down, such as inner speech and psychological distress

1 standard deviation

68%

deception

investigators providing false or incomplete information to participants for the purpose of misleading research subjects

descriptive statistics

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups, including measures of central tendency and variation

example of a positive correlation

+0.98

skewed graph

mode, median, and mean are different

positive skew

high outlier

negative skew

low outlier

measures of variability

depict diversity of the distribution (range, standard deviation)

normal curve

mean, median and mode are all equal

3 principles of being reliable

representative samples are better than biased

less variable observations are more reliable than thsoe that are more variable

more cases are better than fewer

descriptive stats vs. inferential stats

d : allows us to summarize info about the sample studied

i : determine whether or not findings can be applied to a larger population from which the sample was selected

culture (behavior)

enduring behaviors ideas, attitudes, and how people perceive different situations, such as body shape, early sex, etc.

ethics in research

informed consent

protection from harm/discomfort

maintain confidentiality

debriefing

convenience sampling

using a sample of people who are readily available to participate

Likert Scales

questionnaires that require individuals to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement with a set of statements

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Structured Interviews

interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales

Directionality Problem

a problem encountered in correlational studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

Informed Assent

a process that allows minors and people who are not legally able to give informed consent to agree to participate in research

Effect Sizes

The most common way of quantifying and comparing outcomes across studies in meta-analytic reviews

Extraneous variable (EV)

any variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV