History 1300 Exam 2

Adam Smith

• Scottish economist and philosopher

• Born 1723 in Scotland

• Died 1790

• "Father of Modern Economics"

• The Wealth of Nations (1776)

• individual self-interest unintentionally benefits society as a whole (invisible hand)

• free markets, limited government intervention, and division of labor

• Influential in shaping capitalist thought and economic liberalism.

“Wealth of Nations”

• Written by Adam Smith

• Specialization of labor

  • innovation and efficiency

• minimal government envolvment in economy

• wealth of a nation = productivity capacity + citizen wellbeing

• Saving and reinvesting of capital leads to economic growth

• Limited government

• no hoarding of wealth

• free trade

• taxes should be proportional to income

• No hindrance of economic activity

Olaudah Equiano

• Born 1745 in modern-day Nigeria

• Kidnapped by African slave traders

• Freed in 1766, died in 1797

• Contributed to the abolition of slavery in England

• Wrote “The Interesting Narrative of the Life of (person’s name)”

William Wilberforce

• British politician

• philanthropist

• led movement to abolish transatlantic slave trade in British Empire

• Slave Trade Act of 1807

• Born in 1759

• served in Parliament for ~45 years

• social reform

• deep Christian faith

• Clapham Sect

Zong Massacre

• 1781

• British slave ship threw >130 African slaves overboard

• claimed insurance for their loss

• fueled the British abolitionist movement

Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade

• founded in 1787

• Britain

• Quakers and Anglicans

• included Thomas Clarkson and Granville Sharp

• campaign for the end of the transatlantic slave trade

• public awareness, petitions, and political lobbying

• led to abolition of transatlantic slave trade in 1807

Quakers

• Christian group founded

• 17th-century England

• emphasized inner spiritual experience, equality, and pacifism

• social reform movements

  • abolition of slavery

  • prison reform

  • promotion of peace

Benjamin Rush

• Born 1746 Pennsylvania

• physician

• educator

• Founding Father

• signed the Declaration of Independence

• pioneer in medicine

• social reform

• advocated for

  • public education

  • mental health care

  • abolition of slavery

Mary Wollstonecraft

• Born 1759 in London

• Father was abusive

• attended philosophical and scientific lectures

• moved to Bath in 1778 to work as a lady’s companion

• moved back to London in 1780 to care for dying mother

• Published “*Name*: A Fiction” and “Original Stories from Real Life” in 1788

• Moved to Paris in 1792

• inequality is rooted in the privilege of education

• Wrote “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman” in 1792

• Advocated for gender equality

Marie Antoinette

• Queen of France

• born in 1755 as Austrian archduchess

• married King Louis XVI

• symbol of royal excess during French Revolution

• executed by guillotine in 1793.

Louis XVI

• Politically weak

• King of France

• took throne in 1774

• tried to implement liberal reforms

  • thwarted by nobles who wanted to maintain their status

• Held court at palace of Versailles

• Lavish life cooped up in Versailles during French revolution

• Married to Marie Antoinette

• beheaded in 1793

French Revolution

• began in 1789

• period of political and social upheaval

• overthrew the monarchy

• sought to establish equality and citizens’ rights.

• led to

  • radical political changes

  • widespread violence

  • the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

“Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen”

• adopted in 1789

• French Revolution

• liberty, equality, and protection of natural rights = foundation of government

• key human rights document

• influenced democratic movements and constitutions

• likely written by Marquis de Lafayette, influenced by Thomas Jefferson and approved by the French National Assembly

“A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”

• written by Mary Wolstonecraft

• universal equality between genders

• artificial inferiority of women is the result of lack of education

• men value alluring mistresses over rational wives

• females are not considered human

• strength of body and mind falls to beauty standards

• women can only rise in the world through marraige

• women are treated like children in marraige: dressing up and painting

• men treat women like this only because it’s what they know to do

• criticizes Rousseau:

  • he said all was right and this document argues that all will be right

  • he celebrates uncivilized, barbaric behavior

• mothers perpetuate beauty standards

• women must resign power acquired through beauty to institute reform

Jean-Jacques Dessalines

• Born in either west africa or west indies in 1758

• slave in Saint-Domingue

• Sold to a free black man

• Joined 1791 slave rebellion

• declared himself Haitian emperor

• killed by haitians

• wrote a constitution of Haiti

George Washington

• Commander-in-chief of continental army

• US president from 1789 to 1797

• famous farewell address

• died at 67 years old in Mount Vernon

• national hero

• set an example for all future US presidents

• declined a 3rd term

• opposed political parties

Thomas Jefferson

• American Founding Father

• principal author of the Declaration of Independence

• third President of the United States

• statesman

• diplomat

• advocate for democracy and education

• founded University of Virginia

• shaped early U.S. government ideals

Louisiana Purchase

• 1803

• land deal

• US bought ~828,000 square miles from France

• doubled the size of the US

• secured control of the Mississippi River

• opened vast lands for westward expansion

• strengthened U.S. economic and strategy

Haitian Revolution

• 1791–1804

• successful slave revolt in Saint-Domingue

• abolished slavery in Haiti

• established Haiti as the first independent Black republic

• challenged colonialism

• inspired enslaved peoples

• reshaped global discussions on freedom and human rights

“Constitution of Haiti”

• Written by Jean-Jacques Dessalines

• named Jean-Jacques Dessalines life-long emperor of Haiti

• protected commerce

• abolished slavery

• abolished hierarchy

• protection of property

• no one is allowed to leave Haiti

• men must be good husbands, fathers, sons, and soldiers

• no one can disown their children

• white men have no status, naturalized white women can have status

• heir to the crown is elected by emperor

• Haiti has no predominant religion

• army does not have autonomy

• established due process

• a man’s house is his asylum

• marriage is a civil bond

• black and red are the colors of Haiti

"Saint-Domingue"

• France’s wealthiest colony

• one of the leading producers of sugar and coffee

• relied on enslaved African labor

• became nation of Haiti

Napoleon Bonaparte

• Born 1769 in Corsica (French nation)

• born into moderate wealth and nobility

• father represented Corsica at the court of Louis XVI

• Studied at the french military academy

• supported the french revolution

• military leader

• believed in popular authoritarianism

• crowned emperor of France in 1804

• dealt ruthlessly with political conspirators

• sold Louisiana to US

• defeated prussia in 1806

• defeated by russia

  • winter killed/weakened soldiers

• Battle of Boredino

• Died in 1821

• grande armee

• anti-monarchy

• cut off trade with britain

• russians believed him to be the antichrist

Alexander I

• Emperor of Russia (1801 to 1825)

• defeated Napoleon’s invasion of Russia

• reshaped Europe at the Congress of Vienna

• liberal reforms turned conservative after Napoleonic Wars

Congress of Vienna

• 1814–1815

• meeting of European powers

• aimed to restore stability and balance after the Napoleonic Wars

• redrew national boundaries and reinstated monarchies

• established a new diplomatic order

  • maintained relative peace in Europe for nearly a century

Continental System

• Napoleon’s economic blockade

• designed to weaken Britain

• prohibited European nations from trading with Britain

• policy backfired

• damaged continental economies

• fueled resentment against French rule

Treaty of Ghent

• signed in 1814

• ended the War of 1812

  • United States and Great Britain

• restored prewar boundaries

• resolved none of the issues that started the war

• marked the beginning of improved relations between US and Britain

Simon de Bolivar

• Born 1783 in Venezuela

• attended military academy

• captured incan emperor, Tupac Amaru

• Subdued a rebellion by Tupac Amaru II

• national citizen is better than imperial subject

• revolt against spanish authority

• the liberator

• Bolivia

Monroe Doctrine

• declared in 1823

• Americas were closed to future European colonization

• interference by Europe would be seen as a threat to U.S. security

• United States pledged to stay out of European affairs

Congress of Angostura

• 1819

• in present-day Venezuela

• called by Simón Bolívar

• to establish a government for the newly liberated territories of northern South America

• led to the creation of Gran Colombia

  • united Venezuela, New Granada (Colombia), and Ecuador under one republic

Antonio L. de Santa Ana

• Mexican military leader

• politician

• served as president multiple times between 1833 and 1855

• played a large role in the Texas Revolution

  • Battle of the Alamo

• led Mexico during the loss of vast territories to the United States

• Born 1794 in Veracruz

• wealthy creole family

• found guilty of treason

James K. Polk

• 11th president of the United States (1845–1849)

• Manifest Destiny

• expansionist policies

• during his presidency:

  • annexed Texas

  • acquired Oregon

  • on the Mexican-American War

• gained vast new territories in the West

Henry David Thoreau

• Born 1817 in Massachusetts

• American

• writer

• philosopher

• naturalist

• wrote Civil Disobedience

  • advocated for nonviolent resistance to unjust laws

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

• treaty signed in 1848

• ended the Mexican-American War

• Mexican cession

• U.S. paid Mexico $15 million

• assumed certain claims by American citizens against Mexico

Texas Rebellion

• 1835–1836

• revolt by American settlers and Tejanos against Santa Anna’s government

• resulted in Texas winning its independence and establishing the Republic of Texas

Mexican War

• 1846–1848

• fought between the United States and Mexico after the U.S. annexed Texas

• disputes over the border

• U.S. won the war

• led to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

“Civil Disobedience”

• Written by Henry David Thoreau

• 1849

• individuals should not obey unjust laws or support a government that perpetuates injustice

• advocates peaceful resistance and moral conscience over blind obedience to authority

Lin Zexu

• Chinese scholar and official

• efforts to end the opium trade

• destruction of British opium in 1839 at Canton triggered the First Opium War between China and Britain

• wrote letter of advice to Victoria I

Victoria I

• Queen of the United Kingdom from 1837 to 1901

• oversaw Victorian Era

  • industrial expansion

  • empire building

  • cultural change known

• long reign symbolized stability and global influence of the British Empire

Karl Marx

• German

• philosopher

• economist

• political theorist

• developed the ideas of socialism and communism

• co-wrote The Communist Manifesto

• argued that history is driven by class struggle

First Opium War

• Lin Zexu offered tea for opium depots, but was refused by foreigners

• force used to gain 2.5 million pounds of opium and dumped in the ocean

• 1839-1841

• British victory

• Chinese reparations in treaty of Nanking

  • ceded Hong Kong to Britain and opened several ports to British trade

• fought between Britain and China

• British trade of opium and China’s efforts to suppress it

Taiping Rebellion

• 1850–1864

• massive civil war in China

• led by Hong Xiuquan

  • claimed to be the brother of Jesus

  • sought to establish a "Heavenly Kingdom" with radical social reforms

• resulted in the deaths of millions

• severely weakened the Qing Dynasty

Boxer Uprising

• 1899–1901

• anti-foreign, anti-Christian rebellion

• China

• led by the "Boxers," a secret society opposing foreign influence and imperialism

• revolt was crushed by an international coalition

• forced China to pay heavy reparations

• further weakened the Qing Dynasty

“Communist Manifesto”

• Written by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels

• 1848

• written in German, published in london

• class struggle

• workers of all lands unite

• middle class and upwards against working class

• working conditions

• egalitarianism

• destruction of machinery and factories

• abolition of private property

Industrial Revolution

• began in the late 18th century in Britain

• period of major technological, economic, and social change

• marked by the shift from agrarian economies to industrialized production

• led to urbanization, new inventions, and significant improvements in transportation and manufacturing

• caused harsh working conditions and social inequalities

Socialism

• economic and political system

• means of production are owned or regulated collectively

• promotes social equality

• reduces wealth gaps

• provides public services

• prioritizes the welfare of the community over individual profit

• redistribution of wealth

Otto van Bismarck

• German statesman

• served as the Prussian Prime Minister

• first Chancellor of a unified Germany in the late 19th century

• skillful diplomacy

• unification of Germany

• “blood and iron”

• policies of realpolitik

• strengthened the German state

Realpolitik

• political approach

• emphasizes practical and pragmatic strategies over ideological or ethical considerations

• power

• national interest

• realistic goals over moral or philosophical ideals.

Wilhelm II

• German Emperor

• King of Prussia from 1888 to 1918

• aggressive foreign policy

• militaristic approach

• contributed to tensions in Europe that led to WWI

• abdicated at the end of WWI

Franco-Prussian War

• 1870–1871

• conflict between France and Prussia (later germany)

• resulted in a decisive German victory

• led to the unification of Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm I

• fall of Napoleon III’s Second French Empire.

Nikolai Danilevskii

• Born 1822 in European Russia

• Russian philosopher

• historian

• promoted idea that civilizations develop independently and should follow their own unique cultural paths

• Wrote Russia and Europe

  • argued that Russia had a distinct mission separate from Western Europe

Crimean War

• 1853–1856

• fought between Russia and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and Sardinia

• over Russian expansion and influence in the Ottoman territories

• exposed the weaknesses of the Russian military

• ended with the Treaty of Paris

• shifted the balance of power in Europe

Slavophilism

• 19th-century Russian intellectual movement

• emphasized the unique cultural, spiritual, and communal values of Slavic people

• Orthodox Christianity

• traditional Russian institutions

• idea that Russia should follow its own path rather than adopt Western models

Fukuzawa Yukichi

• Japanese educator

• Born in 1835

• promoted Western learning, modernization, and individual independence

• founded Keio University

• influenced Japan’s transformation during the Meiji Era

• advocated for education, technology, and social reform

Max Nordau

• Hungarian-born

• physician

• social critic

• Zionist leader

• Born 1859

• criticized what he saw as the moral and cultural decline of European society

• co-founded the World Zionist Organization with Theodor Herzl

Matthew Perry

• U.S. Navy commodore

• led the expedition to Japan in 1853–1854

• forced the country to open its ports to American trade

• efforts ended Japan’s 200-year policy of isolation

• paved the way for the Meiji Restoration and modernization

Treaty of Kanagawa

• signed in 1854

• between the United States and Japan

• opened two Japanese ports to American ships for supplies

• guaranteed the safety of shipwrecked sailors

• marked the end of Japan’s isolationist policy

• beginning of increased Western influence in the country

Meiji Restoration

• 1868

• political revolution

• Japan

• restored imperial rule

• Emperor Meiji

• ended the Tokugawa shogunate

• modernization

• industrialization

• adoption of Western political, military, and educational systems

• strengthened Japan

Dreyfus Affair

• political scandal

• France

• late 19th century

• Jewish army officer was wrongfully convicted of treason

• exposed deep anti-Semitism in French society

• divided the nation until the man was eventually exonerated

Zionism

• late 19th century

• movement led by figures like Theodor Herzl

• sought to create a Jewish homeland

• response to European anti-Semitism and persecution

• political activism

• cultural revival

• immigration efforts

• lay the foundations for a future Jewish state in Palestine

Emilio Aguinaldo

• Filipino revolutionary leader

• played a key role in the fight for independence from Spain

• led resistance against the United States

• became the first President of the Philippines, declaring independence in 1898

• his government was later suppressed during the Philippine-American War

William McKinley

• 25th president of the United States (1897–1901)

• led the nation during the Spanish-American War

• promoted protective tariffs to support American industry

• presidency ended with his assassination in 1901, which brought Theodore Roosevelt to the presidency

• economic protectionism

• expansionism

• maintaining the gold standard

Mark Twain

• pen name of Samuel Clemens

• American author

• humorist known

• The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

• wit

• social criticism

• vivid portrayal of 19th-century American life along the Mississippi River

• American Anti-Imperialist League

Spanish-American War

• 1898

• brief conflict

• United States defeated Spain

• largely over the issue of Cuban independence

• resulted in the U.S. acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines

• marked its emergence as a global power

Philippine-American War

• 1899–1902

• fought between Filipino revolutionaries and the United States

• after the U.S. took control of the Philippines following the Spanish-American War

• U.S. victory

• established American colonial rule

• caused significant Filipino civilian and military casualties

American Anti-Imperialist League

• founded in 1898

• group of Americans

• opposed the U.S. annexation of the Philippines and other overseas territories

• argued that imperialism violated democratic principles

• opposed the expansion of American power abroad

Karl Pearson

• Born 1857 in london

• law and math

• eugenics

• darwinist

• areligious

• Darwin medal winner

• wrote “natural life from the standpoint of science”

Leopold II

• King of Belgium from 1865 to 1909

• personal control of the Congo Free State

• regime exploited the region’s people and resources

• led to widespread atrocities and millions of deaths

Congo Free State

• 1885–1908

• private colony controlled by King Leopold II of Belgium

• local population was forced to produce rubber and other resources under brutal conditions.

• exploitation and violence led to millions of deaths

• prompted international outrage and the Belgian government to take control of the territory

Scramble for Africa

• rapid colonization and division of African territories by European powers

• driven by economic interests, nationalism, and the desire for strategic control

• exploitation of Africa’s resources

• disruption of local societies

• establishment of European-dominated political boundaries that ignored ethnic and cultural divisions

Darwinism

• based on Charles Darwin’s ideas in On the Origin of Species (1859)

• proposed that species evolve over time through natural selection

• fittest individuals survive and reproduce

• challenged traditional views of creation

• emphasized adaptation and the gradual transformation of life forms

• led to eugenics

Berlin Conference

• 1884–1885

• meeting of European powers

• regulated the colonization and trade in Africa

• established rules for claiming territories without considering indigenous populations

• accelerated the Scramble for Africa

• formalized European control over much of the continent

Booker T. Washington

• African American educator and leader

• founded the Tuskegee Institute

• emphasized vocational training and economic self-reliance for Black Americans

• advocated for gradual social progress and cooperation with white Americans as a strategy to improve the lives of African Americans in the segregated South

W.E.B. Du Bois

• African American scholar and activist

• advocated for full civil rights and higher education for Black Americans

• opposed Booker T. Washington’s gradualist approach

• emphasized immediate political and social equality

Vladimir Lenin

• Russian revolutionary

• leader of the Bolshevik Party

• orchestrated the 1917 October Revolution

• overthrew the Provisional Government

• became the head of the Soviet state

• implemented communist policies

• established a one-party system

• shaped the future of the USSR

Franz Ferdinand

• Archduke

• heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne

• assassination in 1914 triggered the outbreak of World War I

Georges Clemenceau

• French Prime Minister during the final years of World War I

• The Tiger

  • for his strong leadership and determination

• played a key role at the Treaty of Versailles

• advocated for harsh penalties on Germany to ensure France’s security

Ferdinand Foch

• French general and military theorist

• served as the Supreme Allied Commander during the final year of World War I

• coordinated the Allied forces

• achieved victory over Germany

• played a significant role in negotiating the Armistice of 1918

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

• signed in 1918 between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers

• Russia’s involvement in World War I

• ceded large territories, including Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic states, to Germany and its allies in exchange for peace.

Versailles Treaty

• signed in 1919

• ended World War I between Germany and the Allied Powers

• imposed heavy reparations, territorial losses, military restrictions on Germany

• established the League of Nations to prevent future conflicts

Article 22

• established the mandate system

• assigned former Ottoman and German territories to Allied powers to be administered until they were deemed capable of self-governance

• aimed to justify colonial control under the guise of preparing these regions for eventual independence

Russian Revolution

• 1917

• pair of political uprisings

• overthrew the russian imperial government

• ended centuries of Romanov rule

• led to the Bolsheviks, under Lenin, seizing power and establishing a communist state

• formed the Soviet Union.

Woodrow Wilson

• 28th president of the United States (1913–1921)

• led the nation during World War I

• advocated for progressive domestic reforms

• proposed the League of Nations and the Fourteen Points as framework for lasting global peace

  • U.S. ultimately did not join the League.

Eugene V. Debs

• American labor leader

• socialist

• founded the Industrial Workers of the World

• ran multiple times for president as a Socialist Party candidate

• advocated for workers’ rights, labor unions, and social justice

• imprisoned for opposing U.S. involvement in World War I

“Wilson’s War Message to Congress”

• 1917

• urged the United States to enter World War

• framed it as a fight to make the world “safe for democracy”

• emphasized that German actions, including unrestricted submarine warfare, threatened peace and violated international law

“Canton Speech”

• denounced World War I as a war for capitalist and imperialist interests, not for the working class who were sent to fight and die

• called for worker solidarity

• rejected blind patriotism

• urged Americans to embrace socialism as a path to justice and equality

• delivered by eugene v debs

Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

• Germany’s policy of using submarines to sink any ship, including civilian and neutral vessels, around Britain without warning

• aimed to cut off supplies to the Allies

• provoked international outrage

• contributed to the U.S. entering the war

Sedition Act

• 1918

• expanded the Espionage Act

• made it a crime to speak, write, or publish anything considered disloyal, profane, or abusive about the U.S. government, Constitution, or military during World War I

• suppressed dissent

• targeted critics of the war, including socialists, pacifists, and labor leaders like Eugene V. Debs