Chapter 6 - Choosing and Using Participants

Sample

• The people you actually collect your data from

  • Ex: Participant #1, #2, #3

Your study ___ comes from your study ____

sample; population

Population and Example

• People who could have been in your sample

• General group of people who your research will represent

  • Ex:

    • Sample: your friends on campus

    • Population: Centre College students you know

What is the goal of a sample? Why?

• to have a sample who represents their population will

• It increases generalizability, but it’s challenging

What kind of sample do we usually settle for?

Convenience Sample

Convenience Sample and Example

• often, we just settle for what we have easy access to

  • Ex: do Centre students represent the other 19 million college students well? —> nope

Random Sampling

• best type

• Every person in a population has an equal chance to be chosen for the study

  • difficult with large population

• The college student population

  • requires a complete list of every college student and their contact information

Nonrandom Sampling

• common type

• you use whoever is available (bias)

  • Intro Psych Students

    • WEIRD college samples

    • western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic countries

    • 67% of studies are WEIRD

    • only 12% of the globe is WEIRD

  • This limits generalizability

3 Different Research Settings

• Laboratory Research

  • Participants are recruited (SONA)

  • They come to you

    • Research environment is the same

• Field Research

  • Participants are found

  • You go to them

    • Research environment changes

• Online Survey

Voluntary Participation

• All participation must be voluntary

  • volunteers are different than the average person

Voluntary Participation - Lab-Research Volunteer Bias (highlight specific ones)

• higher educated and literate

• higher social class and need for approval

• more social and arousal seeking

• more agreeable

  • these should all be considered as 3rd variables

Selling Samples

• companies will sell you access to broader samples

  • participants log into websites to answer surveys for money

Selling Samples - Online-Research Volunteer Bias

• Lower income bias

• High-tech use bias

• Participants lie about demographics to be included in study

  • EX: Amazon mechanical tech & Qualtrics.XM

Why is deception used?

• usually participants are informed about the research study they will be in

  • BUT some research questions require uninformed participants

When is deception used?

• participants may behave unnaturally if they know what is really happening

• reactivity

  • EX: Brewer (1981) Office Memory Study

  • Bystander Effect

What are the types of deception?

1. Active Deception (untruthful)

2. Passive Deception (withholding)

Active Deception

• Misrepresenting the study purpose

  • “we are studying judgment”

• Use of pseudosubjects (confederates)

  • “these are other participants”

    • (secretly researchers playing a role)

    • Ex: Asch (1951) Line Conformity Experiment

• Breaking a promise to the participant

  • “As motivation, if you score high, you can receive $100”

  • No intention to pay

• Using placebo without their knowledge

  • “This experimental drug will help…”

  • (It’s not a treatment)

Passive Deception

• Conceding observation

  • researchers behind a mirror

  • use of hidden camera

• Using an unrecognized condition

  • Not made aware that there was another condition they could have been in

Problems with Deception

• Skeptical Participation

  • Lack of trust during study

  • Reduces future involvement in research

    • Reputation overspill effect

  • Negative attitudes toward science

    • feeling of being manipulated/shame

    • EXL Milgrams (1963) Obedience Study

If you must use deception, you should ____

debrief

Debriefings

• Participants are told about the deception afterwards

  • done immediately afterwards

  • restore trust, self-esteem, an validate feelings or behaviors

• if done right, can promote positive views on science in general

Proper Debriefings focus on … above all else

honesty

Holmes Debriefing Steps (1976)

1. Disclosure of studies true purpose

2. Explanation of deception used

3. Validate feelings of mistrust

4. Argue for the necessity of deception and the value of the research

What is an alternate to deception? Explain it.

• Role Playing

• Participants act as though they are in a particular situation

  • they know the situation isn’t real

  • they still pretend it is

• Participants can still behave in a natural way fitting the situation

  • Example: Zimbardo (1973) Prison Experiment

We want to avoid reactivity. - What is Reactivity? Who can show reactivity?

• Reacting to being in an experiment or being surveyed

• People care if they’re being watched

  • Stressful (White Coat Syndrome)

  • Motivated to avoid embarrassment

  • More agreeable with others

• Both participants and researchers can show reactivity in research

What is Participant Reactivity?

• Cues that suggest to the participant what responses are expected

  • Participants guess the hypothesis and respond to it

• Role attitudes

  • Cooperative - please the researcher

  • Negative - ruin the experiment