Psychology Research Methods

What is Aim

Aims are a general statement of what the reseacher

Define Independent Variable

The aspect of the experimental situation that is manipulated by the researcher so the effect on the dependent variable can be measured

Define Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured by the researcher.Any effect on the dependent variable should be caused by the change in the independent variable

What is operationalisation

Ensuring variables are in a form that can be easily measured clearly defining in terms of how they can be tested

What is a Directional Hypothesis

Researcher makes clear if the difference that is anticipated

What is a non directional hypothesis

Simply states that there is a difference but the difference is not specified

Directional Hypothesis Template

(IV group A) will have a higher/lower (operationalised DV) in comparison to (IV group B)

Non-Directional Hypothesis Template

There will be a difference in (Operationalised DV) between (IV group A) and (IV group B)

What is an Extraneous Variable

Any variable other than the independent variable that may have an effect on the independent variable if it is not controlled

What are Demand Characteristics

Any due from the researcher or from the research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation.This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour within the research situation

What are Investigator effects

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research outcome.This may include everything from the design of the study to the selection and interaction with participants during the research process

What is Randomisation

The use of chance in order to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions

What is Standardisation

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study

What are the 3 experimental designs

-Repeated Measures

-Independent Groups

-Matched Pairs

What is Repeated Measures Design

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment

What is Independent Groups Design

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents each experimental condition

What is Matched Pairs Design

Pairs of participants are first matched on some variable(s) that may effect the DV.Then one member of the pair is assigned to condition A and the other to condition B

What is Counterbalancing

An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design:

half the participants experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order

Repeated Measures Weaknesses

-Order effects

-Demand Characteristics

Repeated Measures Strengths

-Participant variables are controlled

(fewer participants are needed)

Independent Groups Weaknesses

-Individual differences (participant variables)

-less economical

Matched Pairs Strengths

-No order effects

-No demand characteristics

(Participants only take part in a single condition)

Matched Pairs Weaknesses

-Time consuming

-Expensive

(to match people)

List some examples of order effects

-Boredom

-Fatigue

-Practice

What is a laboratory experiment

An experiment carried out in a controlled setting.Lab experiments tend to have a high internal validity because good control over all variables is possible

What is a field experiment

A controlled experiment conducted outside a laboratory.Field experiments tend to have a lower internal validity(more difficult to control extraneous variables) and higher external validity(greater mundane realism)

What is a natural experiment

A research method in which the experimenter has not manipulated the independent variable directly but would have happened even if the researcher had not been there.The researcher records the effect on the dependent variable

What is a quasi experiment

A study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients.The independent variable has not been determined by the researcher or any other person-the variables simply exist such as being old or young

Lab Experiments Strengths

-High control over extraneous and confounding variables

-Replication

Lab Experiment Weaknesses

-Lacks Generalisability

-Participants may be aware they are being tested and may act unnaturally-Demand Characteristics

Field Experiment Strengths

-Valid Behaviour

-Mundane Realism

Field Experiments Weaknesses

-Can’t control extraneous and confounding variables

-Can’t replicate

-Ethical Issues-Participants unaware of being studied

Natural Experiments Strengths

-High external validity

Natural Experiments Weaknesses

-Lack generalisability

-Not randomly allocated experimental conditions

Quasi Experiments Strengths

-Replication

What is External Validity

The study reflects real life so the findings are genuine

What is Internal Validity

You can be sure a change in the dependent variable is because of the independent variable because other variables have been controlled

What is a Random Sample

A sample of participants produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population being tested has an equal chance of being selected

What is a Stratified Sample

A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population.Participants are then selected randomly from subgroups

What is an opportunity sample

A sample of participants produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study

What is a Volunteer Sample

A sample that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample

Random Sample Strengths

-Free of any bias

Random Sampling Weaknesses

-Time consuming

-Possibly underepresented

Systematic Sampling Strengths

-Avoids researcher bias

-Fairly representative

Systematic Sampling Weaknesses

-Time consuming

-Participants may not want to take part( making it a volunteer sample)

Stratified Sampling Strengths

-Avoids Researcher bias

-representative

Stratified Sampling Weaknesses

-Cannot reflect all the ways people are different

Opportunity Sample Strengths

-Convenient-saves times money effort

Opportunity Sample Weaknesses

-Underrepresented

-Researcher Bias

Volunteer Sample Strengths

-Easy:requires minimal input from researcher

Volunteer Sample Weaknesses

-Volunteer Bias

What is informed consent

Participants must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it,in order that they can make an informed decision about whether to participate

Example of Informed Consent

Sign a consent form

What is deception

A participant is not told the true aims of a study (e.g what participation will involve) and thus cannot give truly informed consent

How to deal with deception

Debrief participants at the end of the study

What is protection from harm

During a research study, participants should not experience negative physical or psychological effects, such as physical injury, lowered self esteem or embarrassment

Examples of protection from harm

Give participants the right to withdraw

What is confidentiality

Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected

What is Privacy

A persons right to control the flow of information about themselves

Example of Privacy

Remains Anonymous

What are the 4 main ethical issues

-Informed consent

-Deception

-Protection from harm

-Privacy and confidentiality

What is Naturalistic Observation

Watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would naturally occur

What is Controlled Observation

Watching and recording behaviour within a controlled environment, i.e one where some variables are managed

What is covert observation

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent

What is overt observation

Participants behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent

What is Participant Observation

The researcher becomes a part of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

What is Non-Participant Observation

The researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are watching and recording

Strengths of Naturalistic Observations

-High external validity

-generalisability

Weaknesses of Naturalistic Observations

-Lack of control

-No replication

-May be uncontrolled variables

Strengths of Controlled Observations

-Replication

Weaknesses of Controlled Observation

-Cannot be generalised

Strengths of Covert Observations

-Participant reactivity

-Increased Validity

Weaknesses of Covert Observations

-Ethical Issues

Strengths of Overt Observation

-Ethically acceptable

Weaknesses of overt observation

-demand characteristics

-High internal validity

Strength of participant observations

Increased Validity

Limitations of Participant observation

Lose objectivity

Strength of Non-Participant Observation

objective

Limitations of Non-Participant Observerations

lose valuable insight

What are Behavioural Categories

When a target behaviour is broken up into components that are observable and measureable

What is Event Sampling

A target behaviour or event that is first established then the researcher records this event everytime

What is Time Sampling

A target individual or group is first established then the researcher records their behaviour in a fixed time frame e.g every 60 seconds

What is Inter-Observer Reliability

The extent to which there is agreement between two or more observers involved in observations of a behaviour

A general rule is that if there is more than 80% agreement on the observations the data has high inter-observer reliability

What are unstructured observations

continuous recording. You simply write down everything you see

What are structured observations

Behavioural categories/checklist

-Tally Behaviour

Strengths of structured observations

Categories make recording data easier and more systematic

Limitations of Structured Observations

lack detail

Strengths of Unstructured Observations

More richness and depth in data collected

Limitations of Unstructured Observations

Qualitative Data which is more difficult to analyse

Strengths of Behavioural Categories

structured data collection

Limitations of Behavioural Categories

Should not be dustbin category

Strengths of Event Sampling

Useful when target behaviour happens frequently

Limitations Of Event Sampling

Could be missed

May overlook important details

Strengths of Time Sampling

Effective in reducing amount of observations

Simpler to record

Limitations of Time Sampling

May be underrepresented

What is Primary Data

Information that has been obtained first hand by the researcher for the purposes of the research project

What is Secondary Data

Information that has already been collected by collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project

What is structured interviews

Pre-Determined set of questions

What is an Unstructured Interveiw

Conversation with a general aim

Strengths of Questionnaires

Cost-Effective