Empirical psychology possible exam questions

Describe Milgram’s experience

The Milgram Experiment examined human obedience to authority, inspired by acts of extreme violence during World War II where individuals followed orders conflicting with personal conscience.

Experiment Design: Participants were "teachers," and an actor (unbeknownst to them) was the "learner." Teachers administered electric shocks for incorrect answers.

Reality: No shocks were applied; learner responses were pre-determined.

Instructions: If hesitant, teachers were urged by the experimenter to continue.

Findings: Revealed many were willing to give potentially harmful shocks when directed by authority.

This study highlights how authority can influence obedience, even against personal morals and ethics.

Describe random sampling and give an example

Random Sampling: This is a probability sampling method where each element within a population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. By using random sampling, researchers can obtain a representative sample that minimizes bias. It is often used with computer-based tools that generate random numbers.

Example:

Suppose a gym has 1,000 members and a sample size of 100 is needed to assess member satisfaction. Each member is assigned a number from 1 to 1,000. A random number generator is then used to select 100 random numbers corresponding to the members.

This method is advantageous due to its relatively simple implementation and its ability to minimize the potential for bias in selecting participants.

explain the impact of dominance in group dynamics within the context of focus groups

Dominance in group dynamics within focus groups can significantly impact the discussion and the quality of the data collected.

Influence of Dominant Participants: Dominant personalities may control the flow of conversation, steering the discussion towards their agenda, which might not align with the research objectives.

Effect on Participation: This can discourage other participants from sharing their views, leading to a limited representation of opinions and potentially biased data skewed by the more vocal members.

Managing Dominance: Facilitators must actively manage group interactions to ensure balanced participation, encouraging quieter members to contribute and prevent dominant individuals from monopolizing the discussion.

explain non-experimental research and name its 3 types

Non-experimental Research: This type of research does not manipulate an independent variable (IV). Instead, it examines variables as they naturally occur. Researchers still measure a dependent variable (DV) but cannot attribute differences observed in the DV to the IV. Non-experimental research is employed when it's not feasible to manipulate an IV, the research focus isn't on cause-and-effect relationships, or the purpose is exploratory.

Three main types of Non-experimental Research:

Cross‑Sectional Research: Involves observing or measuring variables at a single point in time across a sample.

Longitudinal Research: Involves observing the same variables over extended periods of time to identify trends and patterns.

Correlational Research: Studies the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

limitations of qualitative research

Qualitative research offers rich, detailed data and insights but comes with several limitations:

Generalizability: Since qualitative research typically involves small, non-representative samples, findings are not easily generalizable to larger populations.

Subjectivity: The researcher's interpretations and involvement can introduce biases, affecting data analysis and potentially leading to varied conclusions if differently analyzed by other researchers.

Replication Issues: The highly contextual nature of qualitative research can make replication difficult, as results are influenced by specific circumstances and interactions at the time of data collection.

Time-Consuming: Handling, transcribing, and analyzing qualitative data is labor-intensive and requires significant time and resources.

Evaluator Variation: Different researchers may prioritize or interpret data differently due to its subjective nature, resulting in challenges in reaching consistent conclusions.

what is randomization

Randomization refers to the process of randomly allocating participants to different groups in a study to ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the experimental or control conditions. This helps to ensure that confounding variables are evenly distributed across groups, enhancing internal validity by minimizing the potential for bias in the results.

Examples of Randomization:

Random Assignment: This involves dividing participants into groups by chance rather than by choice, which helps to equalize differences across groups that could affect the outcome.

Random Sampling: A method where each member of a population has an equal opportunity to be included in the sample, supporting the randomness and representativeness of the sample.

explain the deductive method in research

Deductive Method in Research: This approach involves starting with a general theory or hypothesis and designing a research strategy to test it. The deductive method is confirmatory, focusing on verifying predefined ideas or hypotheses by collecting and examining data.

Process:

Begin with a Theory/Hypothesis: Start with a general statement or theory.

Develop Predictions: Specify predictions that logically follow from the theory.

Collect Data: Gather data to test these predictions.

Analyze Results: Determine if the findings support or refute the initial theory.

Example: If a theory suggests that exposure to fear-related information generates phobias, a deductive approach would test this by exposing a group to that information and measuring phobic responses, using existing theories and empirical evidence.

two advantages and disadvantages of the inductive method in research

The inductive method is a research approach that involves starting with specific observations and identifying patterns that lead to the development of broader generalizations or theories.

Advantages:

Exploratory Nature: The inductive method is beneficial when there is little existing literature on a topic. Researchers can explore new areas and gather new insights, making it ideal for pioneering research.

Flexibility: It allows researchers to adapt their study as new findings emerge, which can be particularly useful in dynamic fields.

Disadvantages:

Lack of Verification: Conclusions derived from the inductive method cannot be definitively verified; they can only be falsified. This lack of finality can be a limitation in scientific rigor.

Pattern Overgeneralization: There is a risk of overgeneralizing the findings from specific observations to all similar cases, which might not always hold true.

what is phenomenological research? give an example

Phenomenological Research: This involves exploring individuals' subjective experiences and perspectives to gain a deeper understanding of a phenomenon.

Example: It can provide insights into the lived experiences of individuals with back pain and its effects on family dynamics. - Generated by Syntea

why is internal validity important in research settings

Internal validity is crucial in research settings because it ensures that the changes observed in the dependent variable (DV) are truly due to the manipulation of the independent variable (IV), and not influenced by other factors. This focus is essential for drawing accurate conclusions about the relationships between variables.

Key Reasons for Importance:

Credible Cause-Effect Relationship: High internal validity allows researchers to confidently claim the observed effects are due to the IV. This accuracy is crucial for determining the impact of treatments or interventions.

Controlled Experimentation: Achieved through controlled conditions that minimize confounding variables, ensuring more reliable findings.

Basis for Theoretical Developments: Accurate interpretation leads to sound theories and knowledge advancement, making internal validity foundational in empirical research.

describe the stanford prison experiment

The Stanford Prison Experiment, conducted by Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University in the early 1970s, aimed to explore how individuals adapt to assigned societal roles, focusing on the dynamics between prisoners and prison guards.

Setup: Participants were randomly assigned to roles—prisoners or guards—and placed in a simulated prison environment at Stanford.

Behavior: The guards strictly enforced rules, quickly displaying sadistic behaviors, while prisoners became passive, anxious, and depressed.

Findings: The experiment revealed the rapid conformity to social roles based on societal expectations, leading to unethical behavior.

Duration: Initially planned for two weeks, the study was terminated after six days due to escalating conflicts.

Ethical Concerns: Participants weren't fully informed about potential developments, raising significant ethical issues.

how is inductive approach used in qualitative research

The inductive approach is commonly employed in qualitative research where it involves collecting observations or data without a predefined theory. Researchers begin with these raw data to identify patterns and develop new theories and hypotheses.

Flexibility: This approach allows for the emergence of insights during the data collection process, and modifications can be made to the research strategy if necessary. This flexibility contrasts with the rigid nature of deductive methods.

Exploration: Particularly valuable in areas with limited existing studies, it aids in understanding and explaining complex phenomena by building theories from the ground up based on observed data.

2 advantages of within-subject design and one disadvantage, give an example

Advantages :

Reduced Participant Variables: Since the same participants are used across all conditions, this design effectively reduces variability due to individual differences, such as personality traits or intelligence levels.

Smaller Sample Size Required: This design is more time- and cost-effective as fewer participants are needed compared to between-subjects designs, which require more participants to test multiple conditions.

Disadvantage :

Order Effects: Participants might perform differently in subsequent conditions because of familiarity, fatigue, or practice from previous conditions. These order effects can introduce bias into the results.

Example: Imagine a study examining the impact of consuming ice cream on nightmares:

The same participants consume ice cream before bedtime for one week (condition 1) and abstain from it the next week (condition 2).

The frequency of nightmares is measured and compared between the two weeks. Order effects could occur if a participant's bedtime routine becomes more relaxing over time, irrespective of ice cream consumption, influencing the results.

3 sampling methods of non-probability

Non-probability sampling is a simpler approach for data collection that doesn't involve random selection. Here are three key types of non-probability sampling methods:

Convenience Sampling: This method involves selecting individuals who are readily available to participate in the research. It's often used in exploratory research where ease of access is prioritized.

Selective Sampling (also known as Purposive or Judgment Sampling): Researchers use their expertise to select a sample that meets specific criteria and aligns with the objectives of the research. It is common in qualitative research.

Quota sampling: targets specific quotas (age, gender, …)

what is naturalistic observation

Naturalistic Observation is a research method used in psychology to observe subjects in their natural environment without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Advantages: Provides rich qualitative data and insights into real-life situations, capturing the frequency and context of behaviors realistically.

Drawbacks: Potential for reactivity, where individuals modify their behavior due to being observed, although this can be minimized using hidden recording devices.

what is field research and how do researchers balance active involvements with ethical consideration

Field Research: This is a qualitative research method where the researcher observes and interacts with participants in their natural environment. It involves collecting empirical data firsthand, allowing the researcher to gather rich, detailed insights into real-world settings.

Active Involvement: Researchers immerse themselves in the natural environment but maintain a critical distance to ensure objectivity. They often participate in daily activities while observing interactions and behaviors, which aids in gaining comprehensive understanding.

Balancing Ethical Considerations: To ethically conduct field research, researchers need to ensure they minimize disruption to the natural setting and respect the privacy and autonomy of participants. They should:

• Obtain informed consent from participants.

• Respect privacy and confidentiality.

• Avoid influencing the subjects or their environment with their presence.

• Ensure that participation is voluntary and that participants are not subject to harm.

what is correlation research and what’s its use and limitations

Correlational research involves examining the statistical relationship between two variables without controlling extraneous variables. Researchers often use this method to:

Uses:

Employ statistical techniques like regression to predict scores.

Assess the validity and reliability of tools like questionnaires.

Limitations:

Does not establish a cause-effect relationship; it only indicates if variables are related.

Other extraneous variables may influence the observed correlations, as these are not controlled in correlational studies

what does this statement mean: questionnaires are used as screening tools

n clinical psychology, questionnaires are employed as screening tools to identify individuals who may have clinically significant characteristics that necessitate further evaluation.

Purpose: They screen for potential psychological issues by identifying abnormal scores that indicate the need for deeper assessment.

Common Tools: For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) screens for depression, helping determine if someone exhibits symptoms aligning with clinical depression.

Set Values: These questionnaires include cut-off scores that demarcate normal from abnormal values, highlighting individuals needing further evaluation or intervention.

By using questionnaires, clinical psychologists can efficiently determine which individuals may benefit from further diagnostic assessment, aiding in early detection and treatment planning. -

3 criteria that enhance internal validity

3 measures used to reduce reactivity

To reduce reactivity in psychological research, which occurs when participants alter their behavior due to being observed, researchers can employ these measures:

Unawareness of Observation: Collect data without participants being aware they are being studied, such as using archival data or distant observations.

Conceal True Purpose: Use deception by providing participants with a cover story or conduct a post-study debrief to avoid demand characteristics influencing the results.

Anonymity and Confidentiality: Ensure participants' responses are anonymous and confidential, reducing pressure and encouraging honesty.

describe the scientific method (6 steps)

The scientific method is a structured process used to explore observations and answer questions through a systematic sequence of steps:

Observation: Observing phenomena of interest or identifying questions based on previous knowledge or experiences.

Hypothesis Formation: Proposing a hypothesis, which is a testable prediction that provides a potential explanation for the observation.

Experimentation: Designing and conducting experiments to test the hypothesis under controlled conditions, while collecting data and evidence.

Analysis: Interpreting the collected data to determine whether it supports or refutes the hypothesis.

Conclusion: Drawing conclusions based on the data analysis. If the hypothesis is supported, it may become part of a theory. If not, the hypothesis may be modified or rejected.

Communication: Sharing results with the scientific community for verification, critique, and further testing.

2 limitations and two advantages of between-subjects design

Advantages :

Elimination of Order Effects: Since participants are only exposed to a single condition, there is no risk of practice or fatigue effects that might influence their performance, which are common in within-subjects designs.

Simplified Design Process: Without the need to counterbalance, the experimental setup is simpler and often requires less time to administer per participant.

Limitations :

Larger Sample Size Needed: To accommodate the need for separate groups in each condition, a larger pool of participants is necessary, which can increase the time and costs involved.

Potential for Individual Differences: Variability between participants can impact the results as each participant is only exposed to one condition, potentially introducing systematic differences between groups due to unique characteristics.

how are questionnaires related to clinical settings, give an example

Questionnaires are widely used in clinical settings as tools to assess and screen for various psychological disorders and traits. They help clinicians gather valuable information about a patient's symptoms and condition before proceeding to a more detailed diagnostic assessment.

Example:

Screening for Anxiety Disorders: Questionnaires like the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) or other anxiety-related scales can quickly identify individuals showing significant symptoms of anxiety in clinical settings. These tools use cut-off scores to determine if an individual's level of anxiety is clinically relevant, guiding clinicians on the necessity for further assessment or intervention

3 unethical practices that happened in little albert experiment

Lack of Informed Consent: The subject was a baby and could not provide informed consent to participate.

Inducing Distress: Albert was subjected to distressing conditions, with fear responses deliberately induced without his awareness or approval.

Lack of Debriefing or Desensitization: Post-experiment, there was no effort to remove the conditioned fear or provide any debriefing about the procedures done.

3 characteristics of group focus + describe them

1. Interaction: Focus groups capitalize on group interactions to elicit more information on a given topic than individual interviews might. The dynamics between participants stimulate discussion and can reveal differing opinions, new ideas, and consensus on particular issues.

2. Small Group Setting: Typically comprising 6 to 10 participants, the small group size facilitates manageable discussions and ensures everyone has an opportunity to share their views. Smaller groups can hinder data collection due to limited perspectives, while larger groups may impede individual contributions.

3. Participant Homogeneity: Participants in focus groups often share a common characteristic or experience relevant to the research. This uniformity helps the researcher delve deeper into specific issues pertinent to the shared background, enriching the quality of data collected.

what’s the purpose of peer review ? give 3 benefits

Purpose of Peer Review: Peer review aims to gather feedback from experts in the field to enhance the quality of scientific papers.

Three Benefits:

Maintaining Objectivity: Ensures that the research is evaluated without bias, enhancing the credibility of the findings.

Improving Quality: Provides valuable feedback on the methods and analysis, which helps researchers refine their work.

Ensuring Ethical Compliance: Checks for adherence to ethical guidelines, ensuring research integrity.

What is APA and its purpose?

The APA stands for the American Psychological Association, which was established in 1892. Its purpose is to publish rules and regulations for research conduct for psychologists in the United States and worldwide.