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critical thinking
thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions.
structuralism
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt that focused on the structure of the human mind
functionalism
an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin that focused on how the mind functions
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
humanistic psychology
a historically important perspective that emphasized the human growth potential
cognitive psychology
the study of the mental processes involved in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, communicating, and solving problems
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental activity (perception, thinking, memory, and language)
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and values shared by a group of people and passed on from one generation to the next
biopsychosocial approach
an approach that integrates different but complementary views from biological, psychological, and socio-cultural viewpoints
nature-nurture issue
the age-old controversy over the relative influence of genes and experience in the development pf psychological traits and behaviors. Today's psychological science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
dual processing
the principle that our mind processes information at the same time on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well being
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social intuitions (such as schools and neighborhoods) affect individuals and groups
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning and outcome, that we could have predicted it. (also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
peer reviewers
scientific experts who evaluate a research article's theory, originality, and accuracy
theory
an explanation using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events
hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (Also known as operationalization).
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic findings can be reproduced.
preregistration
publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analysis
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without changing or controlling the situation
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that group
population
all those in a group being studies, from which random samples may be drawn. (note: Except for the national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population)
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
correlation
a measure of the extent to which to variables relate to each other, and thus of how well either one predicts the other. The correlation coefficent of the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1.00 to +1.00, with 0 indicating no relationship
experiment
a method in which researchers vary one or more variables (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, researchers aim to control the other variables that may change the research outcomes.
random assignment
assigning participants to excremental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing any preexisting differences between the groups
experimental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
control group
in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; the control group serves as a comparison with the experimental group for judging the effect of treatment
placebo
an inactive substance or condition that is sometimes given to those in a control group in place of the treatment given to the experimental group
double-blind procedure
in an experiment, a procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are uniformed (blind) about who has received the treatment or a placebo
placebo effect
results caused by expectations alone
independent variable
in an experiment, the variable that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
confounding variable
in an experiment, a variable other than the variable being studied that might influence a study's results
dependent variable
in an experiment, the variable that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
informed consent
permission based on researchers giving people enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether the wish to participate.
debriefing
after an experiment ends, explaining to participants the study's purpose and any deceptions researchers used.
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes called the retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: survey, question, read, retrieve, review
