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Origins of socialism
Developed from the 19th Century from the interaction between the Enlightenment and emerging issues such as the rich-poor divide created by the Industrial Revolution and modern capitalism.
What are Utopian Socialists?
Those who adhere to the blueprint for an ideal, future socialist society, or Utopia, to illustrate how life will be better under socialism e.g. Charles Fourier and Robert Owen.
What is scientific socialism?
A scientific analysis of the economic development of society that reveals the division of society into distinct classes locked into struggle with each other.
This struggle is the motor of history, meaning it is inevitable that socialism will replace capitalism. E.g. Marx and Engels.
What is egalitarianism?
Socialism favours equality of some sort - people should be treated the same, get the same, or be treated as equals in some respect.
Most socialists have viewed capitalism as an unequal economic system that concentrates wealth in the hands of the few, and condemns the many to poverty and powerlessness. This creates totally unacceptable differences in life chances in deeply divided societies.
What is collectivism?
The individualism of conservatism and liberalism produces competition not co-operation and inequality not fairness. Society is enhanced by collective action, as working together is both morally superior and economically more successful than individual action. True humanity flows from being part of a genuine community which will replace the isolation and marginalisation people experience under capitalism.
What is historical materialism?
Marx's view of historical change is based on the idea that changes in the way humans work together to produce things then change the way society is organised and the attitude of people in that society.
What does Marxism say about class analysis?
in capitalism, the bourgeoisie owns the means of production. They exploit the proletariat who are forced to sell their labour to survive.
Under capitalism, workers are alienated from their labour as they work to produce commodities, which are owned by the capitalists and sold for profit, rather than producing what is needed or useful. The workers can see that the more wealth they produce, the poorer they become as labour becomes a commodity to be purchased at the lowest possible price.
At the same time, capitalism is driven by internal contradictions as the desire for profit drives down wages and living standards for the workers, while increasing the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the few. This makes capitalism increasingly unstable and prone to deeper and deeper economic crises.
What is class consciousness?
Alienation, exploitation and the deepening crises of capitalism create a class consciousness, as the worker is forced to face 'with sober senses his real conditions of life, and his relations with his kind' (The Communist Manifesto, 1848).
Class consciousness drives the working classes to rise up and overthrow the existing society and state, and replace them with socialism.
How does Marx view the state?
The state is not neutral but 'a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie' (The Communist Manifesto, 1848).
As such, the socialist revolution must overthrow the state, society and the existing economic system based on private property.
What is the dictatorship of the proletariat?
The dictatorship of the proletariat will be a short term strategy to collectivise all property into common ownership for the good of all.
The transitional phase from capitalism to communism, where the workers' state protects the gains of the revolution and replaces private ownership with common ownership.
What long-term vision did Marx and Engels have for the state?
The common ownership of property would lead to the end of class and class conflict. With exploitation a thing of the past, there would be no need for struggles over political power.
There is no need for a workers' state once the class struggle has ended and there will be true democracy as all will be free.
The state will wither away as society transforms from socialism to communism.
What is communism?
A classless society, with no state and the common ownership of wealth. Production would be for necessary consumption and use, and to satisty need rather than profit, freeing humans' creative energies and allowing full freedom for all.
What were Marx and Engelsâ key works?
Marx and Engels are regarded as the key thinkers of. socialism, with The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867) providing a powerful analysis and critique of capitalism and a guide to political action.
Their key idea was that 'the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles'. It was the history of conflict between oppressed and oppressor that ends in the revolutionary remaking of society along communist lines.
What is the ideological superstructure?
The ideological superstructure - society's values, culture and the political institutions of the state - is a reflection of the material base. It therefore reinforces the interests of whoever controls the means of production.
This means that the state, law, religion, the media, education, the arts and culture reflect the values and ideals of the ruling class; in capitalism, these are the values and ideals of the bourgeoisie. The ideological superstructure creates a false consciousness among the proletariat, who are led to believe there is no alternative to the world as it is.
Why is socialism inevitable?
Socialism is inevitable as it is driven by historical materialism and it must be delivered from below by the working classes.
The revolution must be followed by a dictatorship of the proletariat to bring all private property into common ownership and defend the gains of the revolution against the dispossessed bourgeoisie.
The dictatorship of the proletariat is a transition to the abolition of all classes and to a classless society, where the state will wither away. Society will be ordered on the principle from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs' (Critique of the Gotha Programme, 1875).
Revolutionary socialism or evolutionary/reformist socialism?
Marx and Engels argued that socialism will be achieved by revolution from below, as the few will never willingly surrender their power and weaith. Socialism will come about through a class-based revolution and workers must be prepared to use force to defeat a violent counter-revolution by the few.
Liberal democracy, which is dictatorship by the few, will be replaced by the dictatorship of the proletariat, which is the democracy of the masses.
The dictatorship of the proletariat will abolish private ownership of the means of production and replace it with common
This will lead to the abolition of all classes and a classless society, which leads to communism and the withering away of the state.
In evolutionary/reformist socialism, there is a parliamentary road to socialism, so democratic politics rather than class struggle is the motor for change.
Democratic socialists like Beatrice Webb believe in the 'inevitability of gradualism', where a political democracy will naturally lead to the common ownership of the means of production and thus to a socialist society.
Universal suffrage (votes for all) enable the working class, whose lives are uniformly miserable within capitalism, to vote together in their class interest for socialist parties.
Socialism can then be achieved by working within the existing state through education and gradual, piecemeal reforms delivered in a legal and peaceful way.
In the end, socialism would come about due to all classes recognising its ethical superiority, so a working-class revolution is not needed or desirable.
What was Rosa Luxemburgâs key work?
Luxemburg's work, The Mass Strike, the Political Party and the Trade Unions (1906) built on the Marxist view that the emancipation of the working class can only be achieved by the working class, arguing that the mass strike is the strategy for revolution.
In Reform or Revolution (1900), Luxemburg attacked the idea that socialism could be achieved by reform, arguing that those who argued for legislative reform do not choose a more tranquil, calmer and slower road to the same goal, but a different goal'.
What is a mass strike?
The mass strike is 'a historical phenomenon which, at a given moment, results from social conditions with historical inevitability. When the antagonism between the bourgeoisie and proletariat is at its greatest, the mass strike will appear to be 'spontaneous' and overthrow the very conditions that made it possible.
How would the mass strike work?
Bring the proletariat together as a mass, giving them a sense of their common interests and their power, overcoming the atomisation of workers under capitalism.
educate the workers in organisations, so that they can develop an ability to organise society themselves in the interests of the many.
bring the proletariat together so that they can undermine and overthrow the state.
What criticisms did Luxemburg have of the legislative route?
Fails to recognise that:
the state represents and is controlled by the ruling class.
reformism will not mean socialism but accommodating capitalism.
socialists value reforms not only for their benefits to workers but because the process of fighting for reform generates the organisation and strength to take on capitalism as a whole.
it abandons the historical materialism of scientific socialism.
Who was Beatrice Webb?
Beatrice Webb was a key thinker in reformist socialism who underpinned democratic socialism. She was instrumental in establishing the Fabian Society, aligning it with the Labour Party, and in drafting Clause IV of the Labour constitution of 1918 which focused on 'the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange.
What did Webbâs Minority Report of the Poor Law Commission (1909) argue for?
Webbâs Minority Report of the Poor Law Commission (1909) argued for a ânational minimum of civilised lifeâ.
The nationalisation programme, health service and the welfare state of the Attlee government of 1945-51 can be seen as rooted in Webbâs ideas of the national minimum standard of civilised life.
Why did Webb argue for the âinevitability of gradualismâ?
In the age of universal suffrage, the working classes would realise they were being exploited under capitalism and would vote for socialist parties.
Socialist governments would gradually reform capitalism and take the means of production into public ownership. This reform would produce a socialist society and shape human nature to be more co-operative, altruistic and fraternal.
As the benefits of socialism become clear to all - because it is ethically superior to capitalism - the transformation from capitalism to socialism will become permanent.
To what extend is socialism compatible with capitalism?
The Marxist tradition (fundamental socialism) is entirely hostile to capitalism, where the means of production are under private ownership. Capitalism's thirst for profit can only be satisfied by driving down the wages of the workers, leading to exploitation and misery.
Capitalism's tendency towards worsening economic crises throws workers on the unemployment scrapheap, creating further misery.
Marx and Engels, as well as Luxemburg, argued that private property and the market must be abolished and replaced by common ownership and co-operation.
Revisionist socialists argue that capitalism is incredibly efficient at producing economic growth and raising living standards. Capitalism should be harnessed and humanised to achieve socialist ends.
Social democrats, like Anthony Crosland argue that progressive taxation, high levels of spending on public services and universal welfare could be used to distribute rewards, status and privileges fairly to minimise social resentment between classes, to create equal opportunities for all and to secure justice between individuals. They do not see the issue of ownership as important.
Advocates of the third way, like Anthony Giddens, argue that the increased tax revenues produced by the free market could be invested in infrastructure and public services, especially education, to create equality of opportunity.
What is social democracy?
The harsh world of capitalism had been transformed by the reforms of the post-war Labour government under Clement Attlee (1945-51) through nationalisation, the creation of the welfare state and Keynesian economics.
Modern socialism was about social justice; this involved improving welfare ana social equality through progressive taxation and the redistribution of wealth to rectify the inequalities produced by the market.
Modern socialism was about social equality - tackling poverty and reducing inequality. In social democracy it did not go as far as complete equality, as 'extra responsibility and exceptional talent require and deserve a differential reward', in the words of Anthony Crosland (The Future of Socialism, 1956).
In Crosland's eyes, social democracy would 'weaken the existing deep-seated class stratification with its consistent feelings of envy and inferiority, and its barriers to uninhibited mingling between the classes'.
What was Anthony Croslandâs key work?
Anthony Crosland's The Future of Socialism (1956) is arguably the most important revisionist work of the postwar era and its aim was to bring social democracy up to date for the time.
Crosland was a revisionist, arguing that socialism had 'no precise, descriptive meaning' and was really a set of values, not a fixed programme. He argued that social equality was the fundamental aim, not ownership of the means of production.
How did Crosland criticise Marx?
He argued that 'Marx has little to offer the contemporary socialist and that the Marxist idea of imminent capitalist collapse had been disproven by events.
Crosland was extremely optimistic about economic growth and stated that l no longer regard questions of growth and efficiency as being, on a long view, of primary importance to socialism.'
How could managed capitalism work?
The ability of managed capitalism to produce continuous growth could be harnessed by progressively taxing and redistributing wealth via the welfare state and public services to promote social equality and tackle poverty - capitalism with a human face.
What did Crosland suggest about society?
Crosland emphasised the ending of segregation and selection in school education to provide comprehensive education for all. This would help break down the barriers between classes, minimising class distinctions and providing all pupils with equality of opportunity.
Ultimately, Crosland emphasised quality of life issues and breaking down class barriers, so that everyone could be free to achieve happiness and flourishing lives.
What is the Third Way?
The third way accepts that the managed capitalism of Keynesian economics is dead and has been replaced by the free market of neo-liberalism. It aims to balance this with social democracy's commitment to community and equality of opportunity.
Drawing on the socialist ideals of co-operative human nature, the third way is willing to accept free-market economics but not the ideas of an atomistic society. It proposes the widest possible freedoms, but tied to responsibilities to the wider community.
Why does the Third Way reject the emphasis on social equality?
The third way rejects the emphasis on social equality, instead focusing on social justice by providing equality of opportunity. People are given access to education and welfare is targeted at those who are socially excluded e.g. the poorest) so they can access the opportunities in society.
This is a clear emphasis on the redistribution of possibilities, with tax and benefit changes targeted at helping the poorest, although it is recognised that a meritocratic society may be very unequal in terms of the level of outcome.
What role does the state play in the Third Way?
The role of the state is not social engineering through redistribution, in the way that Crosland proposed. The social investment state should concentrate on investing in economic infrastructure and human resources, to make the state more competitive in the global market.
Why is education important to the Third Way?
Education in particular is seen as key, as it creates a skilled and knowledgeable workforce that can compete in the modern, globalised economy, driving economic growth and allowing the individual to realise their full potential.
Who is Anthony Giddens?
Giddens main ideas included the rejection of the traditional conception of socialism and his favouring of the 'third way' in politics.
In his book, Beyond Left and Right (1994), Giddens states that 'Old Conservatism, at least in its more principled forms, is, as has been aptly said, the "other God that failed" alongside Communism and radical socialism.'
What are the two clear roles of the government according to Giddens?
The capacity for government to manage the economy is much reduced, leaving government with two clear roles:
to make the workforce more competitive by building their skills and knowledge through education and training.
to build the necessary infrastructure - transport, schools and hospitals - in order to maximise trade and investment.
What did Giddens suggest in regard to devolution?
The principle of community can be delivered through devolving power to Scotland, Wales, regional assemblies and directly elected mayors, who represent the various communities. It is also evident in the drive for social inclusion and idea of rights coming with responsibilities.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in context
Marx and Engels believed that communism was both the ideal society and inevitable. The revolutions of 1848 across Europe provided the inspiration for Marx and Engels to develop their theory of both how and why communism must come about.
Rosa Luxemburg in context
Luxemburg was a militant activist and one of the most original thinkers in the history of Marxism. She was an uncompromising critic of the parliamentary road to socialism at the turn of the 19th Century, which had been put forward by Edouard Bernstein of the German Social Democratic Party (SPD). She applauded the success of the Russian Revolution of 1917, but warned that a revolution led by a party, not guided by the masses, would run the risk of crushing the freedoms that socialism promised to deliver.
Beatrice Webb in context
Wenâs studies in the East End of London revealed to her the misery of the general population created by landlords and capitalists at the end of the 19th Century. Without some socialism, Webb believed a national minimum of civilised life could not be achieved and she argued for an evolutionary rather than revolutionary road to socialism.
Anthony Crosland in context
Crosland published his key work, The Future of Socialism, to revise the aims of socialism in the light of the economic and societal changes since Marx and Engels were writing, and, in particular, the transformation of society in the UK by the Attlee government of 1945-51.
Anthony Giddens in context
Giddensâ work during the 1990s looked to reform social democracy in light of the perceived failures of Keynesian economics, the collapse of Eastern European communism, the rise of globalisation and the disappearance of the traditional working class.
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