POS 2041 – U.S. Government & Politics (Final Exam Vocabulary Review)

Essential vocabulary flashcards summarizing major concepts, institutions, thinkers, and landmark cases for POS 2041 final exam preparation.

Government Sector

The part of society that makes and enforces laws and public policy.

Civil Society Sector

Voluntary associations, nonprofits, and citizen groups operating outside government and business.

Business Sector

Profit-driven private enterprises that produce goods and services.

Material definition of Politics (Lasswell)

"Who gets what, when, and how"—the study of distribution of resources and power.

Values definition of Politics (Easton)

The authoritative allocation of values for a society.

Thomas Hobbes

Political thinker who viewed humans as selfish and advocated absolute monarchy with no right of rebellion, viewing state of nature as one of war.

John Locke

Philosopher who argued for natural rights (life, liberty, property), limited government, and a right to rebel against tyranny, state of nature is one of inconvenience.

Social Contract

Agreement where people give up some freedom in exchange for governmental protection of rights.

Declaration of Independence

1776 document breaking from Britain, heavily influenced by Locke's natural rights philosophy.

Articles of Confederation

First U.S. constitution; created a weak national government and failed after Shays’ Rebellion.

Shays’ Rebellion

1786 uprising exposing weaknesses of the Articles and prompting calls for a stronger constitution.

Great (Connecticut) Compromise

Constitutional agreement creating a bicameral Congress with proportional House and equal Senate.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Constitutional deal counting enslaved persons as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxes.

Commerce Compromise

Gave Congress power over interstate and foreign trade while limiting taxes on exports.

Executive Compromise

Created a single elected president with electoral college selection.

Federalists

Supporters of the Constitution favoring strong national government.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of the Constitution who demanded a Bill of Rights.

Bill of Rights

First ten amendments guaranteeing individual liberties and limiting federal power.

Article I

Section of the Constitution that establishes the legislative branch (Congress).

Article II

Constitutional article creating the executive branch and outlining presidential powers.

Article III

Part of the Constitution that establishes the judicial branch and Supreme Court.

Separation of Powers

Division of governmental authority among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and Balances

Each branch’s ability to limit the powers of the others to prevent tyranny.

Federalism

System dividing power between national and state governments.

Popular Sovereignty

Principle that governmental authority comes from the people.

Rule of Law

Concept that all individuals, including government officials, are subject to the law.

Enumerated Powers

Powers explicitly listed in the Constitution for Congress.

Elastic Clause

Article I, Section 8—allows Congress to pass laws "necessary and proper" to execute powers.

Concurrent Powers

Authorities shared by federal and state governments, such as taxation and courts.

House of Representatives

Lower chamber of Congress; 435 members elected for two-year terms by population.

Senate

Upper chamber of Congress; 100 members serving six-year terms, two per state.

Standing Committee

Permanent congressional committee that handles bills in specific policy areas.

Select Committee

Temporary committee created to investigate or address a specific issue.

Joint Committee

Committee with members from both houses to study issues or perform housekeeping tasks.

Conference Committee

Temporary body that resolves differences between House and Senate bill versions.

Executive Order

Directive issued by the president that manages operations of the federal government.

Veto

President’s constitutional power to reject legislation passed by Congress.

Treaty Power

President’s authority to negotiate international agreements requiring Senate ratification.

Bureaucracy

Unelected agencies and departments that implement and enforce federal laws.

Administrative Discretion

Bureaucrats’ ability to decide how to implement vague laws or rules.

Judicial Review

Supreme Court power to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional (Marbury v. Madison).

Judicial Activism

Philosophy favoring a vigorous role for courts in interpreting the Constitution and shaping policy.

Judicial Restraint

Philosophy urging courts to defer to elected branches and avoid policy-making.

Media Watchdog Role

Function of monitoring government actions and exposing wrongdoing.

Framing

Media’s ability to shape how issues are perceived through presentation and context.

FCC (Federal Communications Commission)

Regulates broadcast media in the United States.

Fairness Doctrine

Former FCC rule requiring balanced coverage of controversial issues; repealed in 1987.

Pluralist Democracy

We can have more of a impact on democracy as a group

Political Efficacy

Individual’s belief that they can influence politics and government.

Social Capital

Networks of trust and reciprocity that facilitate collective action (Putnam).

Trustee Model

Legislators use their own judgment when making decisions.

Delegate Model

Legislators vote according to constituents’ preferences.

Free Rider Problem

Difficulty in interest group mobilization when individuals benefit without contributing.

Duverger’s Law

Principle stating single-member, winner-take-all elections favor two-party systems.

Proportional Representation

Electoral system allocating seats based on the percentage of votes each party receives.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating electoral district boundaries to favor a party or group.

Marbury v. Madison

1803 case establishing judicial review.

McCulloch v. Maryland

1819 case affirming implied powers and national supremacy.

Brown v. Board of Education

1954 decision declaring racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

Roe v. Wade

1973 ruling recognizing a constitutional right to privacy for abortion decisions.

Power Problem of Government

The challenge of balancing governmental power to act effectively with holding it accountable, often a trade-off between freedom and order, influenced by politics and conditions like war or crisis.

Power Problem of Congress

Issues related to Congress's effectiveness, sometimes leading to it being called the "Broken Branch" due to its operational and organizational methods.

Power Problem of Presidency

Concerns regarding presidential accountability, where the Executive Branch's power, though subject to the Rule of Law, has expanded, leading to issues like lack of transparency, bureaucratic complexity, limited oversight, political influence, and slow response times.

Power Problem of Bureaucracy and Courts

Challenges to the legitimacy of policy-making power wielded by unelected officials in the bureaucracy and courts, including the increased power of the Executive and Judicial Branches beyond the founders' original intent, and the concept of 'neutral competence' to depoliticize bureaucracy.

Power Problem of Public Opinion

The question of whether public opinion is a cause of government action or a result of it.

Rule of Law (Presidential Power Problem)

The principle that government power is limited to what is granted by law, addressing the power problem of the Presidency.

Neutral Competence

The concept of depoliticizing the bureaucracy by moving toward a merit system rather than a "spoils system," aiming to ensure that unelected officials make decisions based on expertise rather than political allegiance.

Civil Society

a society in which people are involved in social and political interactions free of state control or regulation (without fear of government action

Civil Liberties (Negative Rights)

states what the government cannot do or limits government

Civil Rights (Positive Rights)

given by the government to the people

First Amendment

Protects five key freedoms:

• Freedom of Religion
• Freedom of Speech
• Freedom of the Press
• Freedom of Assembly
• Right to Petition Government

Second Amendment

Protects the right of the people to keep and bear arms.

Third Amendment

Protects against the quartering of troops in private homes without the owner's consent in peacetime, or in wartime only in a manner prescribed by law.

Fourth Amendment

Protects people from unreasonable searches and seizures, requiring warrants to be issued upon probable cause and describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized.

Fifth Amendment

Includes several important protections:

• Right to a grand jury indictment for capital or infamous crimes.
• Protection against double jeopardy (cannot be tried for the same crime twice).
• Protection against self-incrimination (right to remain silent).
• Guarantees due process of law.
• Requires just compensation for private property taken for public use (eminent domain).

Sixth Amendment

Guarantees rights for the accused in criminal prosecutions:

• Right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury.
• Right to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation.
• Right to confront witnesses against them.
• Right to obtain witnesses in their favor.
• Right to the assistance of counsel for their defense.

Seventh Amendment

Preserves the right to a trial by jury in civil cases where the value in controversy exceeds twenty dollars.

Eighth Amendment

Prohibits:

• Excessive bail
• Excessive fines
• Cruel and unusual punishments

Ninth Amendment

States that the enumeration of certain rights in the Constitution shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. This eased Federalist fears that listing rights would limit them, and protects rights not explicitly listed in the Bill of Rights.

Tenth Amendment

States that powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. This eased Anti-Federalist fears regarding federal overreach.

Indirect Democracy

Republic, we elect people to make govern for us, like in America

Mixed Government (America is this)

We government by one (president), few (Senate, Electoral College, Supreme Court), and many (House of Reps., elections)

Filibuster

Unlimited debate in order to stop a bill from being passed, only allowed in Senate, cloture ends this

Executive Agreement

form of treatymaking done by the President without approval from the Senate

Executive Privilege

The ability of the President to withhold information from the public if it endangers national security

Fourth Estate

the media, one of our political institutions

Mass Media

media that reaches a nationwide audience, it started in the 1920s

due to the invention of the radio

Communications Act of 1934

Established FCC, regulate television, radio, etc., in the best interest of public

Winner Takes All System, Single Member District Plurality System, First Past the Post System

the person who gets the most votes in a district gets the seat (only one person wins)

Input Articulation

wider part of the input process, the process by which people and social groups express their interests, needs and demands to the government; two types citizen action and interest groups

Voting Amendments

◦15th amendment (1870) — Prohibited states from racial

discriminating in voting

◦17th amendment (1913) — Provided for direct election of

senators

◦19th amendment (1920) — Gave women the right to vote

◦24th amendment (1964) — Eliminated poll tax

◦26th amendment (1971) — Lowered voting age to 18 years old

Lobbying

the process by which lobbyists (representatives that do this), attempt to influence public policy through contact with public officials either done indirectly or directly

Direct Democracy

The people directly govern instead of electing officials to do it for them

Political Action Committees

Organization through which an interest group raises and distributes funds for electoral purposes (must be raised voluntary, individuals limited to 5000$)

Input Aggregation

the process by which political demands are combined into policy programs, narrowing of inputs, political parties are the main interest aggregators

Ballot Initiative

Form of direct democracy, allows voters to propose constitutional amendments and legislation, giving citizens the initiative to change policy

Referendum / Referenda

Form of direct democracy, allows voters to

approve or reject legislature

Voter Fatigue

abstaining from voting because there are too many elections

Why Government?

Purposes:
‣ Protect individual rights (some authoritarian regimes do not)

‣ Establish laws

‣ Promote rule of law

‣ Protect from external threats

‣ Promote economic growth

‣ Provide public services

Why Politics?

◦Finding balance between order and freedom is hard because of differences in opinions and vague constitutional language

◦Debates a wide range of topics and if they should be a part of the public or private sector. (Healthcare, protection from crime, etc.)