AP Psychology Unit 2

Flashcards covering key vocabulary and concepts from the AP Psychology Unit 2 Summary focusing on cognition.

Perception

The process of interpreting information obtained through the five senses.

Sensation

The raw data or information we receive from our sensory receptors.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge and experiences to interpret information.

Proofreader's Illusion

When your brain auto-corrects spelling or grammar mistakes because you already know what you intended to write.

Bottom-Up Processing

Building our perception from the ground up, organizing and interpreting information as it comes in without relying on prior knowledge.

Schema

A mental framework that's built from our past experiences; a cognitive structure based on an individual's experiences.

Perceptual Set

A mental shortcut your brain uses to quickly interpret what you're experiencing, influencing how we interpret a stimuli in a specific moment.

Selective Attention

When we focus on a particular stimulus and tune out other stimuli in the environment.

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on a specific conversation or sound in a noisy setting.

Inattentional blindness

The failure to notice stimuli in our visual field due to our attention being focused elsewhere.

Change Blindness

The failure to notice changes in the environment. This is a type of inattentional blindness.

Apparent Movement

When we perceive motion even though nothing is actually moving.

Stroboscopic Motion

The illusion of movement created by showing a series of images in rapid succession.

Phi Phenomenon

Occurs when lights blink on and off in a sequence, resulting in us perceiving objects as moving even though the objects are stationary.

Induced Movement

When a stationary object appears to move because of the motion of surrounding objects.

Autokinetic Effect

When a stationary point of light in a dark environment appears to move because the eyes and brain have difficulty maintaining stable perception of the light's position since there are no other visual references.

Gestalt Psychology

Focuses on how humans naturally group elements together to form meaningful patterns. Instead of processing individual components of a stimuli, our brains tend to interpret a stimuli as a unified whole.

Figure and Ground

How our visual system separates what we see into two categories: the figure (object of focus) and the ground (background).

Continuation

Addresses why our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or paths.

Closure Principle

Explains how our brain subconsciously fills in missing information when viewing a familiar but incomplete object.

Similarity

Refers to how we perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit.

Proximity Principle

States that when objects are placed close to each other, they are often perceived as one single group, while objects that are spaced and farther apart are seen as separate entities.

Symmetry

When objects that are symmetrical to each other are perceived as one rather than individual separate elements.

Depth Perception

The ability to perceive relative distance of an object in one's visual field.

Binocular Cues

Rely on both eyes working together (convergence and retinal disparity).

Convergence

When we look at something close to us our eyes move inward and when we focus on something farther away our eyes straighten out.

Retinal Disparity

When looking at an object each of our eyes sees a slightly different view of the object and this creates a sense of depth, The difference between the two images is known as retinal disparity.

Monocular Cues

Only require one eye and help us perceive depth on flat or two dimensional surfaces.

Relative Size

Allows us to determine how close an object is to us. Objects that are closer to us will appear larger, while objects that are farther away will appear smaller.

Interposition

Occurs when one object blocks another. The object being blocked is perceived as farther away while the one doing the blocking is seen as closer.

Realtive Height

Tells us that objects higher in our visual field appear farther away while objects lower in our field of view seem closer.

Shading and Contour

Helps us perceive the shape and form of an object. Parts of an image that are hazy and have less details appear farther away, while clearer sharper parts are perceived as closer.

Texture and Gradient

Also play a role in-depth perception. Objects that are clear in focus and full of detail appear closer than objects that lack details and appear more blurry.

Linear Perspective

When parallel lines seem to converge in the distance, giving us a sense of depth and positioning.

Motion Parallax

Objects closer to you appear to move quickly while those that are farther away seem to move more slowly.

Perceptual Constancy

The ability to perceive objects as having consistent shape, size, color, and lightness, even when their appearance changes due to varying conditions.

Cognition

All forms of knowing and awareness such as perceiving, conceiving, remembering, reasoning, judging, imagining, and problem-solving.

Concepts

Mental categories that help us organize and understand the world.

Prototype

The most typical or basic example of a concept.

Assimilation

When we fit new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

When we change a schema to incorporate new information.

Executive Functions

Cognitive processes that help individuals generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal directed behaviors, as well as engage in critical thinking.

Algorithms

A step by step systematic approach to solving a problem.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts based on past experiences used to solve problems. Often saves time but the accuracy isn't always guaranteed and can lead to errors in judgment.

Representative Heuristics

Involves making judgments based on how much something resembles or is a representation of a typical case or stereotype.

Availability Heuristics

Involves making judgments based on how easily an example comes to mind.

Mental Set

A cognitive framework that relies on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems.

Priming

The phenomenon where exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus.

Repetition Priming

Occurs when you are exposed to a specific stimulus that makes it easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later.

Semantic Priming

Involves the influence of one word on the interpretation of another related word.

Framing

Refers to how information is presented, which can shape how we interpret and react to it, often influencing our decisions and judgments.

Divergent Thinking

When a person explores many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Involves narrowing down the possibilities to identify the single best solution.

Functional Fixedness

Limits a person to using an object only in its traditional way.

Gambler's Fallacy

The mistaken belief that if an event occurs more frequently than normal during a given period, it'll happen less frequently in the future or vice versa.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

The tendency to continue to pursue an action in which you've already invested money, time or resources into regardless of its future value.

Memory

Information that persists over time acquired through various experiences and can be stored and retrieved later.

Metacognition

The awareness of your own cognitive processes.

Explicit Memory

Involves information that we consciously recall. These memories require effort and thought. There are two subtypes of explicit memory, episodic memory which relates to personal experiences or events, and semantic memory, which involves knowledge, facts, and general information.

Implicit Memory

Consists of information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it. One key type of implicit memory that you want to be familiar with is procedural memory which helps us recall how to perform tasks such as motor skills and routines.

Prospective Memory

Involves remembering to perform future actions like recalling to take medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week.

Parallel Processing

Your brain is doing parallel processing, which means it handles multiple streams of information simultaneously.

Long Term Potentiation (LTP)

This process strengthens the synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation. LTP allows the brain to form stronger and more efficient neural connections, which enhances our ability to store and retain knowledge and skills over time, making it a critical part in memory formation and learning.

Visual Spatial Sketch Pad

This is often called the inner eye. This part of working memory handles visual and spatial information. It is what allows us to visualize objects and their locations. For instance, imagining a scene or navigating a familiar path.

Phonological Loop

Deals with verbal and auditory information. This part has two sub components. There is the phonological store also known as the inner ear which holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time, and the articulatory rehearsal process also known as the inner voice, which helps you repeat and rehearse verbal information to keep it active in your working memory.

Central Executive

Acts as the control center of working memory. This is what manages and coordinates the other components, focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, switching between different activities, and integrating information from both the phonological loop and the visual spatial sketchpad.

Episodic Buffer

Explains how long term memory integrates with working memory and how different types of information such as sounds and visuals are combined. The episodic buffer acts as a temporary storage system that brings together information from the phonological loop, the visual spatial sketchpad and long term memory into one cohesive sequence.

Iconic Memory

Our visual sensory memory. This memory only lasts for a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory

Our auditory sensory memory which lasts anywhere between one to four seconds.

Maintenance Rehearsal

When you repeatedly go over the information to prevent forgetting, like when you recite a phone number to yourself over and over and over again.

Elaborative Rehearsal

When you connect new information to something you already know, which makes it easier to remember.

Structural Processing

The most superficial level where the focus is on the physical appearance or structure of the information.

Phonemic Processing

A deeper level where the focus is on how the information sounds, such as how a word is pronounced.

Semantic Processing

The deepest level where the focus is on the meaning of the information.

Visual Encoding

When we encode information by the visual elements we observe.

Acoustic Encoding

When the different sound elements help with the encoding process.

Tactile Encoding

When we use the feeling of touch when encoding the information.

Organizational Encoding

When we process information in terms of a specific sequence. This can take the form of lists, groups or focus on a relationship between different items.

Elaborative Encoding

When you pair new information with prior knowledge. Here you are remembering new information by linking it to information you already know.

Semantic Encoding

When you focus on the meaning or context of the information.

Mnemonic Devices

Help people remember information more easily by organizing it in a way that's easier to recall.

Method of Loci

Helps you remember information by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting.

Chunking

Involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units. For instance, when remembering a bunch of numbers, it's easier when you break them down into smaller chunks.

Distributed Practice

The practice of spacing out studying to allow your brain to better encode and store the information.

Spacing Effect

When you space your studying out, it allows your brain to better encode and store information.

Testing Effect

When we take tests, it not only assesses your understanding of the information, but it helps improve your memory as well.

Serial Position Effect

Refers to how the order in which information is presented affects our ability to remember it.

Primacy Effect

States that information at the beginning of a list is more memorable because it has had more time to be rehearsed and encoded into long term memory.

Recency Effect

States that information at the end of a list is easier to recall because it's still fresh.

Memory Consolidation

A process by which short term memories are transformed into long term memories.

Flashbulb Memories

Often clear and very specific. Often formed around events that are extremely stressful, traumatic or emotional.

Autobiographical Memory

Involves memories connected to our own lives. Generally, these are more memorable because of the personal connection and relevance these memories have.

Anterograde Amnesia

When a person can no longer form new memories. This type of amnesia almost always involves something happening to the hippocampus.

Retrograde Amnesia

When a person can no longer retrieve past information. This could happen because of a blow to a person's head.

Source Amnesia

When a person can remember the information but cannot recall where or how they learned it.

Infantile Amnesia

When an adult cannot remember personal experiences from the early years of their life.

Recall

When we retrieve information without any cues or hints.

Recognition

When we use retrieval cues to help access the information.

Context Dependent Memory

When retrieval is improved when you're in the same environment as when you first learned the information.

Mood Concurrent Memory

When you're more likely to recall memories that match your current mood.