Exam 2 (slides)

Trait theory

“great person”

based on assumption that certain traits distinguish leaders from non-leaders

behavior theory

stresses what leaders do

leader behavior description questionnaire

Fielder’s contingency model

an approach to the study of leadership that takes into account characteristics of both the leader and the situation- right person at the right time

task oriented

works with loose, unfavorable or ridged, favorable situations

relationship oriented

work in the middle

path goal theory

proposes that effective leaders motivate subordinates to achieve goals by making rewards available, keeping the path to goal achievement free of obstacles, and being mindful of subordinates’ levels of personal satisfaction

life cycle theory

focuses on the “maturity” of followers. changes in the maturity of followers prompt changes in the leader’s task behavior and relationship behavior

dispositional approach

3 major assumptions

* if persons are truly disposed to act or respond in particular ways, then personality should be fairly stable across time
* dispositions have consistency and generality within a person
* individual differences arise from differences in the strength, amount and number of dispositions a person has

individual psychology

allport

trait

“a generalized and focalized neuropsychic system (peculiar to the individual) with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and expressive behaviors”

types of traits

* cardinal
* central
* secondary

cardinal

characteristics that are pervasive and dominant in a person’s life

(master motives that underlie most behaviors)

central

control less of behavior but are still important (commonly the ones people use to describe themselves)

secondary

preferences (easily overridden)

common traits

categories for classifying many people (like a type)

personal dispositions

unique characteristics of people (how does this person differ from most other persons?)

Cattell- Expectations

defined personality based on what we can expect the person to do

R=f(S,P)

response of a person is a function of the situation confronted and the individual’s personality

roles in groups

* task roles
* socioemotional roles

few people can fulfill both types of roles although leaders can and often do

task roles

focus on the work to be done in the group

socioemotional roles

focus on the quality of relationships among group members

group cohesion

The factors that most saliently distinguish a group from a random gathering of individuals is the degree of attraction, commitment, and involvement of the individual members related to the collective totality.

3 characteristics of cohesion

1. attraction
2. commitment
3. involvement

models of cohesion in sport

pendular model

linear model

life cycle model

pendular model

the idea that forces swing team members back and forth between cohesion and disunity

(initial tryouts, assignment of roles, competition for play time, competition time)

linear model

the idea that cohesion progresses in a predictable way through a series of stages:

forming, storming, norming, and performing

life cycle model

the idea that the life cycle of a group is similar to the human life cycle

factors affecting team cohesion

* group size
* the task
* team tenure
* satisfaction

group size

the larger the group, the more challenges to cohesion and more likely that sub-groups will form

ringelman effect

avg. effort decreases with an increase in group size

social loafing

decrease in individual effort due to presence of coworkers

social loafing

decrease in individual effort due to presence of coworkers

social striving

increase effort in groups when task relevance, intergroup competitiveness, and personal involvement

the task

how much cooperation is required

satisfaction

success leads to satisfaction and cohesion

task role: initiator-contributor

function: offers ideas, new approaches

task role: opinion seeker

Function: ask for attitudes, values

task role: information giver

Function: provides date for group

task role: orienter

Function: keeps group focused

task role: energizer

function: stimulates group

task role: recorder

function: maintains records

task role: critic

function: appraises quality

socioemotional role: encourager

function: rewards with praise

socioemotional role: harmonizer

function: mediates conflicts

socioemotional role: compromiser

function: shifts position to keep peace

socioemotional role: gatekeeper

function: ensures equal participation

socioemotional role: standard setter

function: for assessing quality

socioemotional role: observer

function: points out positives and negatives

socioemotional role: follower

accepts others ideas

Stage of group development: orientation

major process: task exploration

Stage of group development: conflict

major process: resistance, disagreement

Stage of group development: organization

major process: growth of cohesiveness and unity

Stage of group development: performance

major process: goal achievement, focus on task

Stage of group development: dissolution

major process: completion of tasks, reduction of dependence

Order of group development

1. orientation= forming
2. conflict= storming
3. organization= norming
4. performance= performing
5. dissolution= adjourning

personality (definition)

The underlying, relatively stable psychological structure and processes that organize human experience and shape a person’s activities and reactions to the environment

psychological core

a person’s basic personality, composed of core traits, stable and \n unchanging over time, by which we know ourselves and known others

peripheral states

aspects of a person’s basic personality that are constantly in flux

six basic categories of personality theories:

1. Freud’s psychoanalytic
2. Horney’s sociocultural
3. Trait theories
4. humanistic theories
5. behavioral and social learning views
6. neurobiological

Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

* All facets of human personality arise from a basic conflict between our pleasure-seeking urges & the social restraints against them
* Energy that motivates our behavior comes from our aggressive and sexual urges

personality structure involves 3 components: (Freud)

Id, Ego, Superego

Id (Freud)

* our biological urges (the only aspect of personality we are born with)
* operates according to the “pleasure principle”
* no ability to delay gratification

Ego (Freud)

* develops through contact with reality to help Id satisfy its urges safely
* does not “pass judgment” on what Id wants
* will help Id get what it wants but will work within the reality that there are safe and unsafe ways to get what we want
* operates according to the “reality principle”
* is not “moral”

superego (Freud)

* operates accoring to the “morality principle”
* learned by how we are raised
* attempts to get Id and Ego to “do the right thing”
* “A rule is a rule” (makes it irrational)

Horney’s sociocultural view

* felt that social forces were important contributors to personality development
* felt the need for security was the primary influence in personality development

Horney’s approach

* poor childhood relationships may lead to “basic anxiety”
* neurotic trends
* moving toward, away from, and against people
* idealized image
* neurotic pride

5 major features of personality:

1. emotional stability (calm vs anxious)
2. extroversion (outgoing vs withdrawn)
3. openness (flexible vs rigid)
4. agreeableness (helpful vs difficult)
5. conscientiousness (careful vs careless)

central feature of personality is one’s

self-concept

our behaviors are driven by our quest for

self-actualization

actual self (Rogers)

who we currently believe ourselves to be

ideal self (Rogers)

who we would most like to be

Ought self (Rogers)

who others tells us we “should” be

reciprocal determinism

behavior, internal personal factors (traits etc.), and environmental influences all operate to influence each other and determine our personality

control

humans are motivated to feel they are in control of the world moving around them

self-efficacy

“I am an entity capable of actions and those actions have predictable consequences”

learned helplessness

“the world happens to me:

What is personality assessment?

process in which a psychologist uses systematic procedures to gather and organize information about a person to aid in understanding, prediction, or the making of decisions about the person (often for treatment)

Sunberg’s 5 stages of personality assessment

1. establishing the reason for the assessment
2. selecting the assessment techniques
3. gathering the information
4. organizing and interpreting the information
5. communicating conclusions and making decisions

reliability

means that a tests’ results must be repeatable

validity

the degree to which a test measures what it is designed to measure

content validity

* do the items on the test sample the behaviors of interest?
* do scores indicate likely behavior?
* foes the score indicate what someone is likely to do or NOT do?

criterion-related validity

test shows the capacity to make predictions about a person’s behavior by demonstrating a statistical relationship with scores on a second test (concurrent vs. predictive)

construct validity

occurs when support for a hypothesis based on theory is demonstrated (convergent vs. divergent)

Projective technique

Rorschach inkblot

thematic apperception tests

(highly subjective and low in reliability)

prejudice

unjustifiable negative attitude toward a group and its members

stereotype

generalization about a group of people that distinguishes them from others

discrimination

any behavior directed against persons because of their identification with a particular group

genetic or other biological influences (superiority of African American athletes)

proposed differences between black and white athletes:

longer legs/arms

less body fat

more muscles

culture vs genetics/bio

social/cultural influences (AA)

black superiority in some sports appears to be best explained in terms of social influences

* examples: sport opportunity structure/stacking

sport opportunity structure

a form of discrimination whereby minorities are denied access to the opportunities for success in athletics (or, perhaps, certain athletics)

stacking

peripheral positioning of minority players in sports such as football or baseball

implications of stacking

* coaches select athletes for some positions and discourage them from aspiring to others
* leads to few AA athletes being groomed for leadership positions
* belief that sport is the ticket to success for the black person in America (even though only 2,500 athletes per year are employed)

psychological explanation (AA)

college football coaches have been found to stereotype black athletes as: possessing physical speed and quickness and achievement motivation

and white athletes as more reliable, more mentally facile, superior thinking ability

psychological explanation

Lynch, Sjomeling, and Darley- 1999

* Were able to demonstrate that black subjects performed significantly worse on a “golf task” when the task was presented as diagnostic of sports intelligence than when it was presented as diagnostic of natural athletic ability.
* The opposite occurred with white subjects.
* Performance expectations influenced by racial \n stereotypes.

Who participates in high-risk sports?

State-trait anxiety

high-risk sports exhibit less trait anxiety

Who participates in high-risk sports?

Locus of control

internal vs external

Who participates in high-risk sports?

Sensation seeking

thrill and adventure seeking

experience seeking- nonconforming lifestyle

disinhibition- traditional sensation-seeking

boredom susceptibility

Sensation seeking

* Drive reduction theories
* tension is unpleasant and we are motivated to reduce it
* optimal stimulation
* humans have an optimal tension level (differs from person to person
* increase arousal

Who participates in high-risk sports?

Birth order

* first-borns are consistently underrepresented in high-risk sports
* third-borns are significantly overrepresented in high-risk sports

two characteristics to identity

* crisis= has the individual actively explored the “who am I?” question
* commitment= has the individual accepted an identity

How does the NCAA define “impaired student athletes?

those who are confined to a wheelchair, those who are deaf, blind, or missing a limb; those who have only one of a set of organs; or those \n who may have behavioral, emotional, and psychological disorders that substantially limit a major life activity