Approaches

Key features of a science

* paradigm
* empirical methods
* objectivity
* replicable
* general laws

Wundt

* established psychology out of biology and philosophy
* was to use scientific techniques to understand human mind and behaviour

Introspection

scientific technique used to study mental states by Wundt

* 186 research assistants were trained to observe and report their own thoughts and emotions in an unbiased way

Pps were asked to do this many times and used the enormous amount of data to break down structure of the mind to smaller elements

Behaviourist approach

* believe that behaviours are learned from the environment after birth
* only observable behaviour should be studied due to psych being an objective science

Classical conditioning

when a conditioned stimulus becomes associated with an unrelated unconditioned stimulus in order to produce conditioned response

Pavlov (1902\`\`)

* food = unconditioned stimulus
* salivation = unconditioned response
* by ringing a bell every time food was presented to the dog, the unconditioned response of salivation soon became a conditioned response as the dog began to salivate at just the response of hearing the bell due to its conditioning

Watson (1920)

* Little Albert initially did not fear the white rat (neutral stimulus)
* after the rat was paired repeatedly with loud noises (unconditioned stimulus), he would get scared (unconditioned response)
* Then, he would cry when the rat was present (now conditioned stimulus and conditioned response)
* his fear also generalised to other fuzzy white objects

Operant conditioning

behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences, such as reinforcements which make behaviour more likely to be repeated and punishments which make behaviour less likely to be repeated

Skinner (1930s)

* hungry rat in a box would move around and accidentally hit a lever which dispensed food
* the rats quickly learnt to go straight to the lever
* consequence of food = **positive reinforcement**

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* rat in box subjected to electric shocks
* as it moved around it accidentally hit a lever which stopped the electric shocks
* rats learned to go straight to the lever
* consequence of removing shocks = **negative reinforcement**

negative reinforcement

termination of an unpleasant state following a response

positive reinforcement

behaviour is strengthened by rewards, leading to repetition of desired behaviour

punishment

opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken/eliminate a response rather than increase it

Cognitive approach

* argue that thoughts and other internal mental processes cause behaviour


* processes such as memory, language etc need to be fully understood because they cause behaviour
* internal mental processes should and can be studied scientifically
* using inference and models
* knowledge is constructed through experience = schemas

Computer models in cognitive psychology

suggest that humans are ‘info processors’ and this ability to process and make sense of info from our environment causes our behaviour

* human-computer analogy = human mind works like a computer
* both have input, encode, store info and have output

Theoretical models in cognitive psychology

way of explaining how specific mental processes work

* working memory model, multi store model of memory etc

schema

cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret info, developed through experience

cognitive neuroscience

assumes all internal mental processes have a physical location within the brain and precisely locates these areas

* Broca’s patient ‘Tan’ = Broca’s area
* fMRIs, PET scans

Social learning theory

* argued that we learn through observation and imitation of other’s behaviour
* mediation processes (mental/cognitive processes) are essential for learning to take place
* imitation of behaviour depends on observed consequencesmedi

mediational processes

cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

* **attention**: extent to which individual notices the behaviour
* **retention**: how well behaviour is remembered
* **motor reproduction**: ability to perform behaviour
* **motivation:** will to perform behaviour is determined on whether it was rewarded or punished (**vicarious reinforcement**)

identification

role model more likely to be imitated if they possess similar characteristics to the observer, have a high status etc

vicarious reinforcement

if the model is observed to be reinforced for their actions, then imitation is more likely

Bandura et al (1961)

Bobo doll study

* lab experiment, 36 girls and 36 boys between 3-6yrs
* 12 girls and 12 boys each group (group 1: shown aggressive model, group 2: non aggressive model, group 3: control group not shown model)

= children shown aggressive model were more aggressive with the toys than the other 2 groups, **supporting SLT**

Bandura and Walters (1963)

repeated Bobo doll experiment but all shown aggressive model (group 1: model was praised, 2: punished, 3: no consequence)

= children in group 1 most aggressive, 2 least aggressive, **demonstrating importance of vicarious reinforcement**

Psychodynamic approach

* initiated by Freud
* argue that important influences on behaviour come from the unconscious
* psychodynamic conflict
* behaviour is motivated by sexual and aggressive drives

role of the unconscious

**conscious** mind: thoughts and feelings which we are aware of

**subconscious** mind: can be brought into consciousness if you are asked about them

**unconscious**: all repressed ideas and feelings blocked from conscious, its contents can leak out into conscious awareness (Freudian slip, dreams)

structure of personality

* **id**: source of all basic drives, aims to obtain gratification for our needs
* **superego**: governed by moral constraints, morality principle, in conflict with the id
* **ego**: mediates links with the outside world, reality principle

defence mechanisms

protect the ego from anxiety

* **repression**
* **denial**
* **displacement**

psychosexual stages

**O**ld **A**ge **P**ensioners **L**ove **G**uinness


1. **Oral** (0-2yrs) - mouth is focal point of sensation
2. **Anal** (2-3yrs) - beginning of ego development, major issue is toilet training
3. **Phallic** (3-6yrs) - focus on the genitals, major conflict = Oedipus complex, castration anxiety
4. **Latent** (6-12yrs) - conflicts of previous stages are repressed as children cannot remember much of their early years
5. **Genital** (12+ yrs) - directs us towards sex

Oedipus complex

* son desires his mother
* father becomes focus of jealousy and rivalry
* this is expressed as fear = castration anxiety

girls = **penis envy**

Freud’s methods of investigation

* case studies
* free association
* dream analysis

Humanistic approach

* people have free will
* subjective, conscious experience of the individual is the most important way to understand human behaviour

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

1. Physiological needs
2. Safety
3. Love and belonging
4. Esteem needs
5. Self-actualisation

unconditional positive regard

where an individual is supported and not judged, regardless of what they do or say

crucial to Roger’s approach

person centred therapy

clients encouraged to focus on current subjective understanding rather than someone else’s interpretation

Biological approach

all behaviour has a physical cause

* **physiological -** explain behaviour in terms of structures and processes
* **ontogenetic** - try capture development of particular behaviour
* **evolutionary** - locate a particular structure in evolutionary context
* **functional** - explain behaviour in terms of the purpose it serves

genotype

* a person’s actual genetic makeup
* unique to the individual

phenotypes

product of genotype’s interaction with the environment

Evaluation of biological approach

\- reductionist

\- deterministic

\+ supporting evidence

\+ highly scientific