Ultimate Guide (IB)

What is the axial skeleton composed of?

The axial skeleton consists of 80 bones, including the skull, ribs/thoracic cage, sternum, and vertebral column.

What is the primary function of the skull?

The skull protects the brain, forms the orbit of the eyes, attaches to muscles, and structures the face.

How many pairs of ribs are there, and what are the categories?

There are 12 pairs of ribs categorized as true ribs (1-7), false ribs (8-10), and floating ribs (11-12).

What is the significance of the vertebral column?

The vertebral column supports the spinal cord and head, provides articulation sites for ribs and pelvic girdle, and contributes to back flexibility.

What are the characteristics of cervical vertebrae?

Cervical vertebrae (7) are the smallest vertebrae and allow for more movement than thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.

What is the role of the thoracic vertebrae?

Thoracic vertebrae (12) restrict movement because ribs are attached to each vertebra.

What distinguishes lumbar vertebrae?

Lumbar vertebrae (5) are the largest and strongest vertebrae, playing a major role in weight-bearing.

What is the function of the sacral vertebrae?

Sacral vertebrae (5) transmit weight from the body to the pelvis and legs.

Describe the coccygeal vertebrae.

Coccygeal vertebrae (4) form the bone at the end of the spinal column, consisting of four fused vertebrae.

What is the appendicular skeleton made up of?

The appendicular skeleton consists of 126 bones, including the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, and bones of the upper and lower extremities.

What is the function of the pectoral girdle?

The pectoral girdle anchors and supports the upper limbs and serves as an attachment site for muscles that help move the arms.

What role does the pelvic girdle serve?

The pelvic girdle supports and protects vital organs in the abdominal cavity and transfers weight to the lower limbs.

What bones comprise the upper extremity?

The upper extremity consists of the humerus, ulna, radius, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges.

What is the function of the lower extremity bones?

Lower extremity bones are weight-bearing bones that support the body's structure during walking, jumping, and running.

What are long bones?

Long bones have a long cylindrical shaft with enlarged ends and are primarily responsible for movement.

Give examples of long bones.

Examples of long bones include the femur, metatarsals, and clavicle.

What characterizes short bones?

Short bones are small, cube-shaped bones that usually articulate with multiple other bones.

Provide examples of short bones.

Examples of short bones are the carpals of the hand and tarsals of the foot.

What are flat bones?

Flat bones have curved surfaces and provide protection, as well as large areas for muscle attachment.

Name some flat bones.

Flat bones include the sternum, scapula, ribs, and pelvis.

What are irregular bones?

Irregular bones have specialized shapes and functions.

List examples of irregular bones.

Examples of irregular bones include the vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx.

What is the epiphysis of a long bone?

The epiphysis refers to the two end partitions of a long bone, each covered by articular cartilage.

Define the diaphysis.

The diaphysis is the compact shaft of a long bone covered by a periosteum membrane.

What is the periosteum?

The periosteum is a membrane of a long bone that serves as protection.

What is spongy bone?

Spongy bone is a lighter, less dense type of bone tissue found at the ends of long bones and in the middle of other bones, containing red bone marrow.

What is the function of articular cartilage?

Articular cartilage is smooth tissue that covers bone ends at joints, reducing friction and absorbing shock.

What is bone marrow and its functions?

Bone marrow is a soft fatty substance within bone cavities responsible for producing blood cells; red marrow produces blood cells and platelets, while yellow marrow stores fat.

Describe compact bone and its significance.

Compact bone is the dense external layer of bone filled with passageways for nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic system.

What is the marrow cavity?

The marrow cavity is the space within the diaphysis where yellow marrow is stored for white cell production.

What is the primary function of connective tissue?

Connective tissue joins bodily structures like bones and muscles, reinforces joints, and transports nutrients.

What constitutes connective tissue structure?

Connective tissue is made up of proteins like collagen, elastin, and intercellular fluid.

Define joints in anatomical terms.

Joints, or articulations, are locations where two or more bones come into contact.

What are fixed joints?

Fixed joints are highly stable, show no observable movement, and are joined by strong fibers called sutures.

Describe cartilaginous joints.

Cartilaginous joints allow slight movement and have ends covered with fibrocartilage, acting as shock absorbers.

What characterizes synovial joints?

Synovial joints allow a wide range of movement, characterized by a joint capsule and cavity lined with synovial membrane.

Name features of synovial joints.

Features include ligaments, pads of fat, meniscus, bursae fluid, articular cartilage, synovial fluid, and layered joint cavity.

What is the role of ligaments in joints?

Ligaments join bone to bone and provide stability.

What is the function of pads of fat in joints?

Pads of fat increase joint stability, act as shock absorbers, and reduce friction.

Define the term meniscus in relation to joints.

Meniscus refers to flexible discs of fibrocartilage that improve bone fit, stability, and reduce wear on joint surfaces.

What is bursae fluid?

Bursae fluid is found in sacs between tendons and bones, reducing friction in high stress areas.

What is synovial fluid?

Synovial fluid is a slippery fluid filling the joint capsule that reduces friction and nourishes cartilage.

Identify the types of joint movement.

Types include gliding, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball and socket joints.

What is skeletal muscle?

Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, striated, and primarily responsible for moving the skeleton.

Describe cardiac muscle characteristics.

Cardiac muscle is striated, involuntary, and forms the heart tissue.

What defines smooth muscle?

Smooth muscle lines the walls of blood vessels and hollow organs, is under involuntary control, and is non-striated.

What are the characteristics of muscle?

Muscle characteristics include contractility, extensibility, elasticity, atrophy, hypertrophy, nerve stimuli, and being fed by capillaries.

Explain contractility in muscles.

Contractility is the ability of the muscle to contract and generate force when stimulated by a nerve.

What is extensibility in muscle function?

Extensibility refers to a muscle's ability to stretch and extend beyond its normal resting state.

What does elasticity in muscles mean?

Elasticity is the ability of a muscle to return to its original length after being stretched.

What is muscular atrophy?

Atrophy refers to muscle wasting due to lack of activity, poor nutrition, or disease.

What is muscular hypertrophy?

Hypertrophy is the growth and increase in size of muscles, often due to weight training.

Describe the role of nerve stimuli in muscle contraction.

Nerve stimuli are signals sent to muscles to initiate contraction.

What does capillary feeding of muscles imply?

Capillaries facilitate the gaseous exchange necessary for delivering oxygen to muscles.

What are the primary functions of the integumentary system?

The integumentary system regulates body temperature, protects against pathogens, provides sensation, excretes waste, and synthesizes vitamin D.

What is the function of the brain stem?

The brain stem regulates cardiac and respiratory functions, consciousness, and the sleep cycle.

What is the role of the thalamus?

The thalamus relays motor and sensory signals from the cerebral cortex and is involved in cognition and sensation processing.

Describe the hypothalamus's functions.

The hypothalamus controls the autonomic nervous system and maintains homeostasis regulating heart rate, body temperature, and appetite.

What is the primary function of the cerebrum?

The cerebrum is responsible for high-level brain functions, including thought, language, emotion, and cognition.

Explain the cerebellum's responsibilities.

The cerebellum coordinates movements, regulates balance and posture, and allows skilled motor activities.

What are the functions of the frontal lobe?

The frontal lobe is involved in behavior control, voluntary movement, speech, and cognitive skills.

What does damage to the parietal lobe cause?

Damage to the parietal lobe can cause difficulty with spatial awareness, visual perception, and recognition of body parts.

What are the occipital lobe's primary functions?

The occipital lobe is responsible for vision and interpreting visual information like color and motion.

What does the temporal lobe control?

The temporal lobe is involved in processing language, hearing, memory, and emotional responses.

Describe the function of the limbic lobe.

The limbic lobe processes emotions, behavior, motivation, and long-term memory.

What is the significance of the blood-brain barrier?

The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from harmful substances, maintains stable internal environment, and regulates nutrient transport.

What are the main energy sources for the brain?

The brain's primary energy sources are glucose and oxygen, used for ATP production.

What is VO2 max?

VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen the body can utilize during intense exercise, a key indicator of aerobic fitness.

Describe the role of alveoli in gas exchange.

Alveoli are tiny air sacs where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the lungs and bloodstream.

What is the function of the trachea?

The trachea connects the larynx to the bronchi, providing a passageway for air.

What are bronchioles?

Bronchioles are small branches of the bronchi that lead to the alveoli, regulating airflow in the lungs.

What happens during inspiration?

During inspiration, the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, expanding the thoracic cavity and allowing air to flow into the lungs.

What is the purpose of the expiratory reserve volume?

Expiratory reserve volume is the maximum air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.

What is the significance of tidal volume?

Tidal volume is the amount of air inspired or expired during normal breathing.

What are the mechanics of ventilation?

The mechanics of ventilation involve the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contracting and relaxing to facilitate airflow in and out of the lungs.

How does the nervous system control ventilation?

Central and peripheral chemoreceptors detect changes in blood gases and influence respiratory rate.

What are the three energy systems used for exercise?

The ATP-PC system, the lactic acid system, and the aerobic system.

What is the primary difference between anaerobic and aerobic energy systems?

Anaerobic systems do not require oxygen and provide energy for high-intensity activities, while aerobic systems require oxygen and support longer-duration activities.

Describe the ATP-PC system and its role.

The ATP-PC system provides immediate energy for short bursts of high-intensity activities using stored phosphocreatine.

What is the lactic acid system?

The lactic acid system produces ATP by breaking down glucose anaerobically during moderate to high-intensity activities lasting up to 2 minutes.

How does the aerobic system generate energy?

The aerobic system generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation, using oxygen to convert carbohydrates and fats into energy.

What are the factors affecting energy system usage?

Factors include intensity of activity, duration, fitness level, and oxygen availability.

What are the cardiovascular adaptations resulting from endurance training?

Increased stroke volume, improved cardiac output, and increased capillary density.

Describe the differences between the types of muscle contractions.

Isometric contractions maintain constant length, isotonic contractions change length, concentric contractions shorten muscles, and eccentric contractions lengthen muscles.

What refers to the automatic relaxation of antagonistic muscles during movement?

Reciprocal inhibition.

What does the sliding filament theory explain?

The sliding filament theory explains how muscle fibers contract by the sliding of actin and myosin filaments over one another.

How do fast-twitch and slow-twitch fibers differ?

Fast-twitch fibers contract quickly and generate more force but fatigue faster; slow-twitch fibers contract more slowly, are fatigue-resistant, and are better for endurance tasks.

What are the three axes of body movement?

Sagittal axis, frontal axis, and vertical axis.

What is the role of the center of mass in sports?

The center of mass affects balance, stability, and how the body moves in space.

What is the principle of leverage in biomechanics?

The principle of leverage examines how bones act as levers and joints as fulcrums in movement.

What are the main differences between first, second, and third class levers in the body?

In first-class levers, the fulcrum is between the effort and load; in second-class levers, the load is between the effort and fulcrum; and in third-class levers, the effort is between the load and fulcrum.

Explain Newton's First Law of Motion.

An object at rest or in uniform motion will remain so unless acted upon by an external force.

What is the significance of angular momentum in sports?

Angular momentum is crucial for maintaining stable rotations and can influence performance in athletic actions like spinning or jumping.

How does the Bernoulli principle apply to sports?

The Bernoulli principle describes how pressure varies with fluid speed, affecting the flight trajectory of projectiles like balls in sports.

What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic feedback?

Intrinsic feedback is information received internally by the performer, while extrinsic feedback comes from external sources such as coaches.

What are the phases of learning in skill acquisition?

Cognitive phase, associative phase, and autonomous phase.

What is the role of practice in skill development?

Practice enhances the acquisition of skills through repetition and refinement of techniques.

What are the principles of effective training program design?

Principles include progression, overload, specificity, reversibility, variety, and periodization.

What factors influence the rates of learning new skills?

Factors include prior experience, motivation, quality of coaching, age-related factors, cognitive abilities, task complexity, and practice methods.

Explain the concept of transfer in training.

Transfer refers to the application of previously learned skills to new or similar tasks.