Ultimate Guide (IB)

Anatomy

Skeletal System

Axial Skeleton (80 bones)

• Skull

  • Protects the brain, forms the orbit of the eyes, attachment to muscles, and structure to the face.

•  Ribs/Thoracic Cage

  • Protects and supports the internal organs of the body such as the heart and lungs and some of the abdominal organs like kidneys and liver.

    • 12 pairs of ribs

      • 1-7 → true ribs

        • Directly attached to the sternum

      • 8-10 → false ribs

        • Indirectly attached to sternum

      • 11-12 → floating ribs

        • Not attached to the sternum

• Sternum

  • A flat bone that starts at the bottom of the throat and runs to about halfway down the centre of the chest.

• Vertebral Column (33)

  • Supports the spinal cord and supports the head. It provides articulation sites for ribs and innominate bones of the pelvic girdle. It is also responsible for the flexibility of the back.

    • Cervical Vertebrae (7)

      • Smallest vertebrae

      

      • More movement than thoracic and lumbar vertebrae

    • Thoracic Vertebrae (12)

      • Restricts movement

        • Ribs are attached to the side of each vertebrae

    • Lumbar Vertebrae (5)

      • The biggest and strongest of the vertebrae

        • Plays a major role in weight-bearing

    • Sacral Vertebrae (5)

      • Transmits weight from body to pelvis and legs

    • Coccygeal Vertebrae (4)

      • The bone at the end of the spinal column that is composed of four vertebrae combined into one bone

Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)

• Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

  • Functions to anchor and support the upper limbs serve as an important attachment site for many muscles that help to move the arms.

• Pelvic (Hip) Girdle 

  • Supports and protects the soft vital organs of the abdominal cavity, transfers the weight of the upper axial skeleton to lower appendicular parts, especially during body movement, and provides attachment to the lower limbs.

• Upper Extremity/Arms (humerus, ulna, radius, carpal bones, metacarpals, and phalanges)

  • Helps in the hand movement to perform various activities, and helps the shoulder to perform a wide range of motions.

• Lower Extremity/Legs (femur, tibia, fibula, tarsal bones, metatarsals, and phalanges)

  • Weight-bearing bones that support the entire structure of the body while walking, jumping, or running.

Types of Bones:

• Long bones usually have a long cylindrical shaft and are enlarged at both ends; can be large or small, but the length is always greater than the width; most important bones for movement.

  • They include the femur, metatarsals, and clavicle

• Short bones are small and cube-shaped, and they usually articulate with more than one other bone. 

  • Short bones include the carpals of the hand and tarsals of the foot. 

• Flat bones usually have curved surfaces and vary from being quite thick to very thin; provide protection, and the broad surfaces also provide a large area for muscle attachment.

  •  Flat bones include the sternum, scapula, ribs, and pelvis

• Irregular bones have specialized shapes and functions.

  • Irregular bones include the vertebrae, sacrum, and coccyx.

Parts of Long Bone

• Epiphysis: Two end partitions of a long bone, each covered by articular cartilage.

• Diaphysis: Compact part of a long bone; a long shaft covered by a periosteum membrane. Important for protection.

• Periosteum: Membrane of a long bone for protection.

• Spongy Bone: A type of bone tissue found at the ends of long bones and in the middle of other bones such as the vertebrae. It is lighter and less dense than compact bone; and contains red bone marrow, which is responsible for producing blood cells.

• Articular Cartilage: Smooth, white tissue that covers the ends of bones where they come together to form joints, helps to reduce friction, and absorbs shock.

• Bone Marrow:  Soft fatty substance in the cavities of bones, in which blood cells are produced; RED → produces blood cells and platelets. Yellow marrow → stores fat

• Compact Bone: The external layer of the bone that is very dense, filled with passageways for nerves, blood vessels, and the lymphatic system.

• Marrow Cavity: Space within the diaphysis where yellow marrow is stored for white cell production.

Connective Tissue

• Functions:

  • to join bodily structures like bones and muscles to one another or hold tissues like muscles, tendons, or even organs in their proper place in the body.

  • gives reinforcement to joints, strengthening and supporting the articulations between bones.

  • transports nutrients and metabolic by-products between the bloodstream and the tissues to which it adheres.

• Structure: 

  • made up of proteins like collagen, elastin, and intercellular fluid.

  • the form can range from a thin sheet to a dense rope of fibers.

Joints

• Also known as an articulation; where two or more bones come into contact or articulate with each other.

• Different Types of Joints

  • Fixed Joints 

    • Very stable, with no observable movement, bones are joined by strong fibers called sutures.

  • Cartilaginous Joints

    • Allows slight movement, the ends of the joint are covered with white pads of fibrocartilage, which act as shock absorbers.

  • Synovial Joints 

    • The most common type of joint that allows a wide range of movement and is subdivided according to movement possibilities, is characterized by the presence of a joint capsule and cavity lined with a synovial membrane.

• Synovial Joints

  • Features

    • Ligament

      • Structure: A band of strong fibrous connective material.

      • Function: Joins bone to bone, and provides stability.

    • Pads of fat 

      • Found between capsule, bone, or muscle.

      • Increases joint stability, acts as a shock absorber, and reduces friction.

    • Meniscus Tough

      • Flexible discs of fibrocartilage.

      • Improves fit between the bone ends, increases stability, and reduces wear and tear to joint surfaces.

    • Bursae Fluid 

      • A filled sac is found between the tendon and bone.

      • Reduces friction, found in body areas of high stress.

    •  Articular Cartilage 

      • Smooth and spongy covers of the end of bones

      • Prevents friction between articulating bones

    • Synovial Fluid 

      • Slippery fluid that fills the joint capsule.

      • Reduce friction, nourish cartilage, and get rid of waste from the joint.

    • Layered Joint Cavity 

      • Outer layer – tough and fibrous

      • Inner layer – synovial membrane covers all internal surfaces

      • Strengthen joint, secrete synovial fluid

  • Types

    • Gliding

      • Usually flat or slightly curved, slide across each other, with the least amount of movement.

    • Hinge

      • The articular surfaces have been fused so movement in one direction, joined by ligaments, movement is only allowed in one plane (extension/flexion).

    • Pivot

      • The rounded surface of one bone that rolls around a ring formed by bone and ligament.

    • Condyloid

      • A ball-shaped bone that fits into a cup.

    • Saddle

      • Saddle-shaped bone that fits into a bone shaped like the legs, and can move up, down, side to side.

    • Ball and Socket

      • A sphere-shaped bone that fits into a rounded cavity, covered in cartilage to prevent friction and a high range of movements.

Muscular System

Origin: the attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone, usually the most proximal attachment Insertion: the attachment of a muscle tendon to a moveable, usually the most distal attachment

Characteristics:

• Contractility: The ability of the muscle to contract and generate a force when it is stimulated by a nerve

• Extensibility: The ability to extend before its normal resting state.

• Elasticity: The muscle's ability to return to its original resting length.

• Atrophy: Muscle wastage, lack of physical activity, poor nutrition, and disease.

• Hypertrophy: Growth and increase in the size of the muscle, most commonly as a result of weight training.

• Nerve Stimuli: A nerve that sends a signal for the muscle to contract.

• Fed by capillaries: Gaseous exchange that occurs in the capillaries so oxygen can be delivered to the muscles.

Types of Muscles:

• Skeletal muscle: Under voluntary control, has a striated appearance, has tendons that attach the muscle to the bone, and the main function is to move the skeleton.

• Cardiac muscle: Under involuntary control, striated, heart muscle.

• Smooth muscle: Lines the walls of the blood vessels and hollow organs such as the stomach or intestines, involuntary control, not striated.

Integumentary System

Functions:

• Regulation of Body Temperature: if it is cold, hairs on the skin will stand up and blood flow in the capillaries is decreased.

  • If it is warm, hair muscle relaxes so heat can escape; Also, sweat is secreted which cools us down. 

• Protection and Immunity: The skins form a physical barrier through specialized cells of the immune system.

  • These cells detect bacteria and viruses, and they are called antibodies.

• Sensation: Sensation is a feeling that is localized on the skin’s surface.

  • They are processed through receptors in the dermis.

• Excretion: Sweat glands remove waste such as urea, uric acid, and ammonia and help regulate body temperature when overheating.

• Synthesis of Vitamin D: From the sunlight, we need vitamin D to aid with calcium, iron, magnesium phosphate, and zinc absorption through the liver and kidney.

  • The epidermal cells convert ultraviolet rays into vitamin D.

Nervous System

Functions of Parts of the Brain:

• Brain Stem

  • Location: Posterior part of the brain linking to the top of the spinal cord.

  • Control center for the regulation of cardiac and respiratory function, consciousness, and sleep cycle.

  • Vehicle for sensory information.

  • Made up of the medullary oblongata, pons, and midbrain.

    • Medullary Oblongata: Centre for respiration and circulation; regulates breathing, heart, and blood vessel function.

    • Pons: Links brainstem to spinal cord.

    • Midbrain: Links brain to spinal cord.

• Thalamus

  • Relays motor and sensory signals from the cerebral cortex.

  • Involved in cognition, pain, temperature, pressure, and sensation in general.

• Hypothalamus

  • Controls the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and helps to maintain your internal balance.

  • Regulates heart rate, blood pressure, the pituitary gland, body temperature, appetite, thirst, fluid and electrolyte balance and circadian rhythms.

• Cerebrum

  • The largest part of the brain

  • Responsible for high-level brain functions 

    • Ex. thinking, language, emotion, and motivation

• Cerebellum

  • Top of the brain stem

  • Receives information from the sensory system

  • Responsible for: 

    • Coordinating movements 

    • Regulating balance and posture 

    • Allowing skilled motor activities to be carried out

• Frontal Lobe

  • Directly behind the forehead 

  • Largest lobe in the human brain

  • The most common region of injury

  • Primary Function:

    • Behavior and Emotional Control Centre

  • Important for voluntary movement, expressive language, and managing higher-level executive functions ]→ cognitive skills

  • Controls:

    • Personality/Emotions

    • Intelligence

    • Attention/Concentration

    • Judgment

    • Body movement

    • Problem-solving

    • Speech

  • Damage or injury can cause:

    • Loss of movement (paralysis)

    • Repetition of a single thought

    • Unable to focus on tasks

    • Mood swings/Irritability/Impulsiveness

    • Changes in social behavior and personality

    • Difficulty problem solving

    • Difficulty with language – unable to get words out (aphasia)

• Parietal Lobe

  • Near the back and top of the head

  • Informs about objects in our external environments through touch and the position and movement of body parts.

  • Responsible for integrating sensory input, and the construction of a spatial system to represent the world around us.

  • Controls:

    • Sense of touch, pain, and temperature

    • Distinguishing size, shape, and color

    • Spatial perception

    • Visual perception

  • Damage or injury can cause:

    • Difficulty drawing objects

    • Difficulty distinguishing left from right

    • Spatial disorientation and navigation difficulties

    • Problems reading

    • Lack of awareness of certain body parts or surrounding space

    • Inability to focus visual attention

    • Difficulty with complex movement

• Occipital Lobe

  • At the back of the head

  • Controls:

    • Vision

  • Responsible for visual perception including color, form, and motion.

  • Damage or injury can cause:

    • Difficulty locating objects in the environment

    • Difficulty identifying colors

    • Production of hallucinations

    • Visual illusions – inaccurately seeing objects

    • Word blindness

    • Difficulty reading and writing

• Temporal Lobe

  • Behind the ears and is the second largest lobe

  • Controls:

    • Speech (understanding language)

    • Memory

    • Hearing

    • Sequencing

    • Organization

  • Process auditory information and encode memory.

  • Plays an important role in processing affect/emotions, language, and certain aspects of visual perception.

  • The dominant temporal lobe (left side for most) → helps to understand language. learning and remembering verbal information.

  • The non-dominant → learning and remembering non-verbal information.

  • Damage or injury can cause:

    • Difficulty understanding spoken words

    • Disturbance with selective attention

    • Difficulty identifying and categorizing objects

    • Impaired factual and long-term memory

    • Persistent talking

    • Difficulty recognising faces

    • Increased or decreased interest in sexual behavior

    • Emotional Disturbance

• Limbic Lobe

  • Top of the brain stem and under the cerebral cortex

  • Controls:

    • Emotional processing

    • Behavior

    • Motivation

    • Long term memory

  • It is involved in many emotions and motivations, especially those related to survival.

    • Processing emotions such as fear, anger

    • Emotions related to sexual behavior

Blood Supply

• The brain needs oxygen + nutrients.

• Cerebral Arteries: Posterior supply (basilar artery) in the cerebellum and the anterior supply in the cerebrum.

• Communicating Arteries: Surround the pituitary gland and make up the ‘Circle of Willis’ – this allows the brain to receive blood and nutrients from either the carotid or vertebral arteries.

  • Carotid Artery

    • Internal

      • Origin: Subclavian artery

      • Supply: Blood to the cerebrum.

      • Anterior supply to the brain ascends to three branches and reduces the risk of circulation interruption as there are two supplies.

    • External

      • Origin: Bifurcation of the common carotid artery

      • Branches: Split into 5 arteries e.g., facial artery, occipital artery

      • Supply: Blood to the face, scalp, base of the skull, and neck.

  • Vertebral Artery

    • Origin: Branches of the 1st part of the subclavian artery.

    • Course: Ascends posterior to the internal carotid artery in the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae branches.

      • numerous small branches

      • radicular/spinal branches

      • Posterior inferior cerebellar artery (PICA)

    • Termination: Combines with the contralateral vertebral artery to form the basilar artery.

• Blood-Brain Barrier

  • It protects the brain from foreign substances that could injure it.

  • Protects it from hormones and neurotransmitters.

  • Maintains a constant environment for the brain (homeostasis).

  • The highly selective barrier separates circulating blood from the brain’s extracellular fluids in the Central Nervous System.

Energy

• The brain’s main sources of energy are glucose and oxygen → travel from the blood to the brain cells.

• Glucose and oxygen help make ATP within the brain through the process of aerobic respiration.

  • Adenosine triphosphate (ATP): nucleotide which is vital for brain function because it enhances the delivery of nutrients and oxygen to the brain and stimulates the removal of waste products such as glucose and oxygen.

  • Glucose

    • Glucose is a simple carbohydrate that provides fuel for the brain.

    • Glucose travels into the brain cells from the blood through the process of diffusion.

    • The supply of glucose is continuous because carbohydrate storage is limited.

    • The energy from glucose is crucial for communication activity inside the brain, as well as for maintaining memory function.

  • Oxygen

    • Used by the brain to perform its functions.

    • Needed for brain growth and healing.

    • The brain requires 3x as much oxygen as the muscles.  

    • Supplied to the brain cells through the blood via diffusion.

    • Supply is always continuous.

• The effect of low glucose or oxygen levels:

  • Without a constant supply of glucose and oxygen, the brain is unable to function properly. If blood entering the brain is low on either glucose or oxygen, can suffer from:

    • Mental confusion 

    • Dizziness

    • Convulsions

    • Loss of consciousness  

Exercise Physiology

Structure and Function of the Ventilatory System

Nose and Mouth:

• Function: Entry points for air into the respiratory system.

• Significance: The nose filters, warms, and humidifies the incoming air, preventing potential damage to the delicate respiratory structures.

Pharynx and Larynx:

• Function: Connect nasal and oral cavities to the trachea, ensuring proper air passage.

• Significance: The larynx contains the vocal cords and plays a role in sound production, while the pharynx serves as a shared pathway for air and food.

Trachea:

• Function: Rigid tube connecting the larynx to the bronchi, providing a pathway for air.

• Structure: Supported by C-shaped cartilage rings to prevent collapse during inhalation.

Bronchi and Bronchioles:

• Function: Branches of the trachea leading to the lungs, further dividing into smaller bronchioles.

• Significance: Conduct air to the alveoli, and their smooth muscle regulates airflow.

Alveoli:

• Function: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.

• Structure: Thin-walled structures surrounded by a dense network of capillaries, facilitating the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Functions of the Conducting Airways:

• Filter and Humidify Air:

  • Nose and Upper Airways: Filter impurities, including dust and microorganisms.

  • Respiratory System: Adds moisture to inspired air, preventing drying of the delicate respiratory surfaces.

• Conduct Air:

  • Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles: Provide a pathway for air, ensuring its passage to the alveoli for gas exchange.

Pulmonary Ventilation:

• The total volume of air breathed in and out per minute.

• Significance: Reflects the respiratory efficiency and the ability to exchange gases.

Total Lung Capacity (TLC):

• The maximum amount of air the lungs can hold after a maximum inhalation.

• Components: Comprises tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and residual volume.

Vital Capacity (VC):

• The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation.

• Clinical Significance: Often used as an indicator of respiratory health.

Tidal Volume (TV):

• The amount of air inspired or expired during normal breathing.

• Role: Represents the normal breathing pattern without additional effort.

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV):

• The maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a normal exhalation.

• Significance: Allows for increased expiration during forced exhalation.

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV):

• The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation.

• Importance: Enhances the ability to take in more air during increased respiratory demand.

Residual Volume (RV):

• The volume of air remaining in the lungs after a maximal exhalation.

• Role: Prevents alveolar collapse and maintains a baseline of air in the lungs.

Mechanics of Ventilation

Inspiration (Inhalation):

• Process: Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, expanding the thoracic cavity.

• Result: Reduced intrathoracic pressure allows air to be drawn into the lungs.

Expiration (Exhalation):

• Process: Diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, reducing thoracic volume.

• Result: Increased intrathoracic pressure expels air from the lungs.

Nervous and Chemical Control of Ventilation During Exercise:

Nervous Control:

• Central Chemoreceptors: Detect changes in blood pH and carbon dioxide levels, influencing respiratory rate.

• Peripheral Chemoreceptors: Respond to oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the blood.

Chemical Control:

• Increase in Metabolic Byproducts: During exercise, increased CO2 production and lactic acid contribute to increased respiratory drive.

Role of Hemoglobin in Oxygen Transportation

Hemoglobin Function:

• Oxygen Binding: Hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs, forming oxyhemoglobin.

• Oxygen Release: Oxyhemoglobin releases oxygen in tissues with lower oxygen concentrations.

Saturation Curve:

• The sigmoidal shape of the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve reflects the cooperative binding of oxygen to hemoglobin.

Gaseous Exchange at the Alveoli

• Process:

  • Oxygen Diffusion: Oxygen moves from the alveoli into the bloodstream.

  • Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: Carbon dioxide moves from the bloodstream into the alveoli.

• Factors Influencing Exchange:

  • Concentration Gradients: Differences in partial pressures drive gas exchange.

  • Alveolar Membrane: Thin membrane allows efficient diffusion.

Composition of Blood

• Plasma: A liquid matrix containing water, electrolytes, proteins (including albumin and globulins), hormones, and waste products.

• Formed Elements: Cellular components, including red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leucocytes), and platelets.

Functions of Erythrocytes, Leucocytes, and Platelets

• Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): Carry oxygen from the lungs to the body tissues and transport carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

• Leucocytes (White Blood Cells): Play a crucial role in the immune system by defending the body against infections and foreign substances.

• Platelets: Essential for blood clotting to prevent excessive bleeding when there is an injury.

Anatomy of the Heart

Heart Chambers:

• Atria (Right and Left):

  • Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the body via the superior and inferior vena cava.

  • Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary veins.

• Ventricles (Right and Left):

  • Right Ventricle: Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery.

  • Left Ventricle: Pumps oxygenated blood to the entire body through the aorta.

Valves:

• Tricuspid Valve:

  • Located between the right atrium and right ventricle.

  • Prevents backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium during ventricular contraction.

• Mitral Valve (Bicuspid Valve):

  • Positioned between the left atrium and left ventricle.

  • Prevents backflow of blood from the ventricle to the atrium during ventricular contraction.

• Pulmonary Valve:

  • Found at the entrance of the pulmonary artery, which exits the right ventricle.

  • Prevents backflow of blood from the pulmonary artery back into the right ventricle.

• Aortic Valve:

  • Located at the entrance of the aorta, which exits the left ventricle.

  • Prevents backflow of blood from the aorta back into the left ventricle.

Major Blood Vessels:

Superior and Inferior Vena Cava:

• Superior Vena Cava: Brings deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium.

• Inferior Vena Cava: Brings deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium.

Pulmonary Arteries:

• Carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for oxygenation.

• Unique among arteries in carrying deoxygenated blood.

Pulmonary Veins:

• Carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

• Unique among veins in carrying oxygenated blood.

Aorta:

• The largest artery that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the entire body.

Coronary Arteries:

• Branch off the aorta and supply the heart muscle (myocardium) with oxygenated blood.

• Critical for the heart's own metabolic needs.

Intrinsic Regulation:

Sinoatrial (SA) Node:

• Location: Located in the right atrium.

• Natural Pacemaker: The SA node is often referred to as the "natural pacemaker" of the heart.

• Action Potential Initiation: Initiates electrical signals that lead to the contraction of the heart muscle.

• Rhythmic Contractions: Generates rhythmic electrical impulses, setting the pace for the heartbeat.

• Autonomous Activity: The SA node exhibits automaticity, meaning it can generate action potentials spontaneously.

Atrioventricular (AV) Node:

• Location: Located between the atria and ventricles.

• Delay Function: Delays the transmission of electrical impulses to the ventricles, allowing the atria to contract before the ventricles.

Bundle of His and Purkinje Fibers:

• Conduction Pathway: Transmit the electrical signals from the AV node to the ventricles, ensuring a coordinated contraction.

Extrinsic Regulation:

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):

• Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS):

  • Effect on SA Node: Increases heart rate by releasing norepinephrine, which enhances the SA node's activity.

  • Effect on Atria and Ventricles: Strengthens the force of atrial and ventricular contractions.

  • Fight or Flight Response: Activated during stress or exercise.

• Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS):

  • Effect on SA Node: Decreases heart rate by releasing acetylcholine, which inhibits the SA node's activity.

  • Effect on Atria and Ventricles: Weakens the force of atrial and ventricular contractions.

  • Rest and Digest Response: Dominant during periods of rest and relaxation.

Vagal Tone:

• Continuous Influence: The vagus nerve (parasympathetic) exerts a continuous inhibitory influence on the heart, maintaining a baseline level of activity.

Baroreceptor Reflex:

• Baroreceptors: Located in the walls of the aorta and carotid arteries.

• Blood Pressure Regulation: Detect changes in blood pressure and signal the cardiovascular center in the medulla oblongata to adjust heart rate accordingly.

Relationship between Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

Pulmonary Circulation:

• Right Atrium:

  • Deoxygenated Blood: Receives deoxygenated blood from the superior and inferior vena cava, which is returning from the body.

• Right Ventricle:

  • Pulmonary Artery: Pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery.

  • Lung Capillaries: Divides into arterioles and capillaries in the lungs, where blood releases carbon dioxide and picks up oxygen through pulmonary gas exchange.

• Pulmonary Veins:

  • Oxygenated Blood: Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the heart.

  • Left Atrium: Enters the left atrium, completing the pulmonary circulation loop.

Systemic Circulation:

• Left Atrium:

  • Oxygenated Blood: Receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary veins.

• Left Ventricle:

  • Aorta: Pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta, the largest artery in the body.

  • Systemic Arteries: Blood is distributed through systemic arteries to various tissues and organs.

• Capillaries in Systemic Circulation:

  • Oxygen and nutrients are exchanged for carbon dioxide and waste products at the capillary level within tissues.

• Systemic Veins:

  • Veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the right atrium, completing the systemic circulation loop.

Relationship Between Heart Rate, Cardiac Output, and Stroke Volume:

Cardiac Output (CO):

• Cardiac output is the total volume of blood ejected by the heart per minute.

• Units: Typically measured in liters per minute (L/min).

Stroke Volume (SV):

• Stroke volume is the volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle with each heartbeat.

• Units: Usually measured in milliliters per beat (mL/beat).

Heart Rate (HR):

• Heart rate is the number of heartbeats per minute.

• Units: Measured in beats per minute (bpm).

Relationship: CO = SV × HR

Cardiac Output (CO):

• Calculation: The product of stroke volume and heart rate.

• CO = SV × HR: This equation represents the mathematical relationship between cardiac output, stroke volume, and heart rate.

• Example: If stroke volume is 70 mL/beat and heart rate is 75 bpm, the cardiac output would be 5,250 mL/min (or 5.25 L/min).

Stroke Volume (SV):

• Determinants: Stroke volume is influenced by factors such as preload (volume of blood in the ventricles before contraction), afterload (resistance the heart must overcome to eject blood), and contractility (force of ventricular contraction).

• Adaptation: During exercise, stroke volume often increases due to increased venous return and enhanced contractility.

Heart Rate (HR):

• Determinants: Heart rate is influenced by factors like autonomic nervous system activity, hormones, and intrinsic cardiac factors.

• Adaptation: During exercise, heart rate typically increases to meet the body's increased demand for oxygen and nutrients.

Cardiovascular Drift

• Cardiovascular drift refers to the phenomenon where, during prolonged exercise, there is a gradual increase in heart rate and a decrease in stroke volume.

  • This drift is often associated with factors such as dehydration and increased body temperature.

• Mechanisms:

  • Dehydration: As the body loses fluid through sweating during prolonged exercise, blood volume decreases, leading to a compensatory increase in heart rate to maintain cardiac output.

  • Increased Body Temperature: Elevated body temperature during prolonged exercise can affect stroke volume and vascular resistance, contributing to cardiovascular drift.

• Significance:

  • Cardiovascular drift can impact exercise performance and should be considered in exercise prescription and hydration strategies.

  • Monitoring heart rate and stroke volume during prolonged exercise helps in understanding the physiological response to sustained effort.

Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure

• Systolic Pressure:

  • Definition: The pressure in the arteries during the contraction of the heart.

  • Exercise Response: During exercise, systolic pressure typically increases to meet the increased demand for oxygenated blood by the active muscles.

• Diastolic Pressure:

  • Definition: The pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest.

  • Exercise Response: Diastolic pressure may show a moderate increase during exercise but generally remains stable or may even decrease slightly.

Analysis of Blood Pressure Data

Resting Blood Pressure:

• Normal Range: Typically, normal resting blood pressure is around 120/80 mmHg.

• Assessment: Deviations from this range may indicate hypertension or hypotension, impacting overall cardiovascular health.

Exercise Blood Pressure:

• Assessment: Monitoring blood pressure during exercise helps assess cardiovascular responses and identify abnormalities.

• High Blood Pressure Response: An excessive rise in blood pressure during exercise may indicate cardiovascular stress or potential health risks.

Response of Blood Pressure to Dynamic and Static Exercise

Dynamic Exercise:

• Response: Dynamic exercises like running or cycling may cause a moderate increase in blood pressure.

• Mechanism: Increased cardiac output and vasodilation in active muscles contribute to the rise.

Static Exercise:

• Response: Static exercises, like weightlifting, can lead to a more pronounced and immediate rise in blood pressure.

• Mechanism: Increased intra-abdominal pressure and vascular resistance during muscle contractions contribute to the rise.

Distribution of Blood at Rest and Redistribution During Exercise

Resting Distribution:

• Organs: At rest, blood is distributed to vital organs such as the brain, heart, and kidneys to meet their baseline oxygen demands.

Exercise Redistribution:

• Muscles: During exercise, blood redistributes to active muscles, providing increased oxygen and nutrient delivery to meet the heightened metabolic demands.

• Vasoconstriction: Blood flow to less critical areas, such as the digestive system, may decrease temporarily.

Cardiovascular Adaptations from Endurance Exercise Training

Adaptations:

• Increased Stroke Volume: Endurance exercise training enhances the heart's ability to pump more blood with each contraction.

• Improved Cardiac Output: The heart becomes more efficient in delivering oxygenated blood to the tissues.

• Capillarization: Increased capillary density enhances oxygen exchange in muscles.

Significance:

• These adaptations contribute to improved aerobic fitness and exercise performance.

• Endurance exercise is associated with cardiovascular health benefits, including reduced risk of heart disease.

Maximal Oxygen Consumption (VO2max):

• VO2max represents the maximum amount of oxygen an individual can utilize during intense exercise.

• It is considered a key measure of aerobic fitness.

• Determination:

  • VO2max is typically determined through direct measurement during maximal exercise testing, often involving treadmill or cycle ergometer protocols.

• Significance:

  • Higher VO2max values are associated with better aerobic capacity and endurance.

  • VO2max serves as a valuable indicator of an individual's cardiovascular and respiratory fitness.

Variability of VO2max in Selected Groups:

Factors Influencing Variability:

• Age: VO2max tends to decline with age, reflecting changes in cardiovascular and respiratory function.

• Gender: Males often have higher VO2max values than females, partially due to differences in muscle mass.

• Genetics: Genetic factors contribute to individual differences in aerobic capacity.

Training Response:

• Regular aerobic exercise can improve and maintain VO2max levels across different age groups and populations.

Variability of VO2max with Different Modes of Exercise

Mode-Specific Responses:

• Running vs. Cycling: The choice of exercise mode can influence VO2max responses.

• Muscle Groups Involved: Different modes involve varying muscle groups, impacting oxygen utilization and cardiovascular demands.

Training Considerations:

• Individuals may have mode-specific strengths, and training programs may be tailored based on the intended exercise mode.

• Cross-training, incorporating various modes, can offer well-rounded fitness benefits.

Energy Systems

Introduction to Energy Systems

Energy systems are responsible for producing the energy required for muscular contractions during physical activity. The human body utilizes different energy systems depending on the intensity and duration of the activity. These energy systems include:

1. The ATP-PC System (Alactic System)

2. The Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis)

3. The Aerobic System (Oxidative System)

Each system plays a crucial role in different types of exercise and physical activities, ensuring that the body has the necessary energy to perform movements.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is the immediate energy source for all muscular contractions. It is composed of adenosine and three phosphate groups. When ATP is broken down into Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate (Pi), energy is released to fuel bodily functions.

The body has a limited supply of ATP stored in the muscles, so it must constantly regenerate ATP through different energy systems.

The ATP-PC System (Phosphagen System)

Overview:

• Also known as the alactic system (does not produce lactic acid)

• Provides immediate energy for high-intensity, short-duration activities (e.g., sprinting, jumping, weightlifting)

• Uses Phosphocreatine (PC) stored in muscles to rapidly regenerate ATP

Process:

1. PC is broken down into creatine (C) and phosphate (Pi), releasing energy.

2. The energy released is used to resynthesize ATP from ADP and Pi.

3. This process occurs anaerobically (without oxygen) and is extremely fast.

Advantages:

• Provides energy instantaneously

• Does not produce waste products like lactic acid

• Ideal for explosive movements

Disadvantages:

• Stores of PC are limited and deplete quickly (within 10-15 seconds)

• Requires rest (30 seconds to 2 minutes) to replenish PC stores

The Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis)

Overview:

• Used for moderate- to high-intensity activities lasting between 30 seconds and 2 minutes

• Breaks down glucose anaerobically (without oxygen) to generate ATP

• Produces lactic acid as a byproduct

Process:

1. Glycogen is broken down into glucose.

2. Glucose undergoes anaerobic glycolysis, resulting in the production of ATP and pyruvate.

3. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted into lactic acid.

Advantages:

• Provides ATP quickly

• Supports moderate-duration, high-intensity activities (e.g., 400m sprint, swimming)

Disadvantages:

• Lactic acid accumulation leads to muscle fatigue and discomfort

• Less efficient than the aerobic system

The Aerobic System (Oxidative System)

Overview:

• Provides energy for low-intensity, long-duration activities (e.g., long-distance running, cycling)

• Requires oxygen to efficiently produce ATP

• Uses carbohydrates, fats, and sometimes proteins as fuel sources

Process:

1. Glycolysis: Glucose is broken down into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.

2. Krebs Cycle: Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and undergoes the Krebs cycle, generating ATP, NADH, and FADH2.

3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC): NADH and FADH2 donate electrons, producing a large amount of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.

Advantages:

• Produces a high yield of ATP

• Uses multiple fuel sources (carbohydrates, fats, proteins)

• Produces no fatiguing byproducts

Disadvantages:

• Requires oxygen, making it slower to generate ATP

• Not effective for short bursts of high-intensity activity

Energy System Interplay

During exercise, all three energy systems work together, but their contribution depends on the duration and intensity of the activity:

• Short bursts (<10s): ATP-PC system is dominant.

• Moderate duration (30s-2 min): Lactic acid system provides the majority of ATP.

• Long duration (>2 min): Aerobic system becomes the primary energy provider.

The transition between energy systems is seamless, allowing the body to sustain different levels of activity efficiently.

Factors Affecting Energy System Usage

Several factors influence which energy system predominates during exercise:

• Intensity of activity: Higher intensity requires faster ATP production (ATP-PC and anaerobic glycolysis).

• Duration of activity: Longer durations rely more on the aerobic system.

• Fitness level: Trained athletes can utilize oxygen more efficiently, improving aerobic capacity.

• Availability of oxygen: Oxygen presence determines whether anaerobic or aerobic pathways dominate.

Training Adaptations to Energy Systems

Regular training leads to physiological adaptations that enhance energy system efficiency:

• ATP-PC System Adaptations:

  • Increased stores of phosphocreatine

  • Enhanced enzyme activity for ATP resynthesis

• Lactic Acid System Adaptations:

  • Improved ability to buffer and tolerate lactic acid

  • Enhanced glycolytic enzyme activity

• Aerobic System Adaptations:

  • Increased mitochondrial density

  • Enhanced oxygen delivery and utilization (e.g., higher VO2 max)

  • Improved fat metabolism efficiency

Energy Systems in Different Sports

Different sports rely on energy systems to varying degrees:

• Sprinting (100m, weightlifting, jumping) → ATP-PC system

• Mid-distance events (400m, 800m, soccer) → Lactic acid system

• Endurance sports (marathon, cycling, rowing) → Aerobic system

Training programs are designed to develop the dominant energy system required for a specific sport, ensuring optimal performance.

Conclusion

Energy systems are fundamental to human movement and athletic performance. The ATP-PC system provides immediate energy for short bursts, the lactic acid system supplies energy for moderate-duration activities, and the aerobic system sustains prolonged activity. Understanding these systems allows athletes and coaches to tailor training for improved performance and endurance.

Movement Analysis

4.1. Neuromuscular Function

• Nervous system is made up of millions of nerve fibers, transferring electrical signals from the brain.

  • The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord. 

  • The peripheral nervous system is the arrangement of nerves extending from the spinal cord to other parts of the body. 

  • Motor neurons (motoneurons) are nerves that carry info from the CNS to the muscles and signal for contraction. 

Structure of neurons 

• Cell body - contained in the spinal cord or in clusters just outside it called ganglia. 

• Dendrites - link the neuron to other neurons and information to flow. 

• Axon - main component to nerve signal transmission, similar to an electrical wire. Encased in myelin for insulation. 

  • Gaps in myelin called nodes of Ranvier 

• Neuromuscular junction (NMJ) (motor end plate) - where the neuron meets the muscle.

  • Small gap between the two called the synapse.

• Motor unit - a single motor neuron and the muscle it innervates. 

  • Typically the larger the muscle the more muscle fibers are innervated by each motor neuron. 

    • Allows a single motor neuron to generate large muscular forces 

  • A small number of muscle fibers per motor neuron gives a small force but great precision (ex eye). 

  • When the motor unit is innervated all the muscle fibers attached to it are contracted.

• Types of motor units (fast/slow twitch) 

  • Type I - slow twitch motor units consist of mainly slow twitch muscle fibers and have slower nerve transmission speeds and small muscle forces. 

    • Can maintain contractions for a long period of time 

    • Fatigue resistant 

    • aerobic 

  • Type IIa - fast twitch oxidative (uses oxygen) motor units consist mainly of type IIa muscle fibers and have fast nerve transmissions.

    • Stronger contraction forces and are more resistant to fatigue 

    • Anaerobic and aerobic 

  • Type IIb - fast twitch motor units with mostly fast twitch muscle fibers. 

    • Fastest contraction times and largest forces 

    • High fatigue rate and can’t maintain contractions for a long period of time 

    • Anaerobic 

Mechanics of Muscle Contraction

• Striations - muscle fibers that appear striped due to the overlap of actin and myosin proteins within the muscle fiber. 

• Muscle contraction starts with electrical impulse from the brain (either voluntarily or by reflex). 

  • Signal travels along the motor neuron to the muscle via the NMJ across the synapse. 

• When signal reaches here, the neurotransmitter, Acetylcholine, is released and changes the electrical state of the muscle.

  • The signal travels through the muscle fibers stimulating the sarcoplasmic reticulum where it releases calcium (Ca2+)

• Myosin binding sites on actin are covered by tropomyosin. 

• Calcium binds to troponin on the tropomyosin which causes it to move and reveal the myosin binding sites on the actin. 

  • ATP on the Myosin head is hydrolysed to form ADP + Phosphate

• Cross bridge formed - myosin heads are shaped like little golf clubs and it is the ends of the heads that attach to the actin. 

  • Myosin head remains bound until an ATP molecule releases it. 

  • As long as there is calcium available cross bridge formation will continue until maximum contraction of the muscle fiber is reached. 

• The motor neuron initiates a resting potential through repolarization. 

• Cholinesterase, an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, is released and causes the muscle cell to repolarize and relax. 

• Calcium ions are removed from the cell and returned to the sarcoplasmic reticulum via the calcium pump

• Cross bridge formation is terminated as there is no calcium which means the myosin binding sites on the actin filament are covered by tropomyosin. 

  • Myosin heads to a resting state.

• Control of Muscle force

  • When a muscle is signaled to contract, the force of the contraction is appropriate so the body segment moves appropriately

    • Quads require a large form (big muscle group), or a small force like fingers for writing.

Skeletal muscle contracts by Sliding Filament Theory

• Myofibril: A cylindrical organelle running the length of the muscle fibre, containing Actin and Myosin filaments.

• Sarcomere: The functional unit of the Myofibril, divided into I, A and H bands.

• Actin: A thin, contractile protein filament, containing 'active' or 'binding' sites. It slides past myosin casing contractions.

• Myosin: A thick, contractile protein filament, with protrusions known as Myosin Heads. Pulls actin filaments towards one another by means of cross bridges.

• Tropomyosin: An actin-binding protein which regulates muscle contraction.

• Troponin: A complex of three proteins, attached to Tropomyosin.

• Z Line: separates each sarcomere. It provides an anchor for proteins and also anchors the actin filaments to the ends of the sarcomere

• M Line: is the centre of the A band and it is where adjacent myosin filaments anchor to each other

• H Zone: is the centre of the sarcomere and has only myosin filaments 

• A Bands are also known as dark bands and has both actin and myosin microfilaments - stays the same length during contraction

• I Bands are also known as light bands and have only actin microfilaments.

• Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions and releases them into the sarcoplasm for the generation of action potential during muscle contraction.

• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the sole fuel for muscle contraction.

• Calcium triggers contraction by reaction with regulatory proteins that in the absence of calcium prevent interaction of actin and myosin.

Structure of a Sarcomere

• A sarcomere is a subunit of a myofibril. 

• At either end is a Z line to which narrow actin filaments are attached. 

• The actin filaments stretch inwards towards the centre of the sarcomere. 

• Between them, there are thicker myosin filaments, which have heads that can bind to the actin. 

• The part of the sarcomere containing myosin is the dark band and the part containing only actin filament is the light band. 

Slow and Fast twitch fibre types differ in structure and function

• Slow-twitch, or type I, fibres have more mitochondria, store oxygen in myoglobin, rely on aerobic metabolism, have a greater capillary to volume ratio and are associated with endurance; these produce ATP more slowly.

• Fast-twitch, or type II, fibers have fewer mitochondria, are capable of more powerful (but shorter) contractions, metabolize ATP more quickly, have a lower capillary to volume ratio, and are more likely to accumulate lactic acid.

Fast Twitch (Type 2)

• Contract quickly

• Give sharp, powerful muscle contractions

• Don't use oxygen

• Suited to activities with bursts of strength and power

• Tire quickly

Slow Twitch (Type 1)

• Take longer to contract

• Give long sustained muscle contractions

• Not as powerful

• Have a good oxygen supply

• Suited to activities which require long term energy

Fast Twitch Type 2

• Fast Twitch 2a: Fast Twitch High

  • Oxidative Glycolytic (FOG)

  • Have a greater resistance to fatigue due to endurance training

• Fast Twitch 2b: Fast Twitch Glycolytic (FTG)

4.2 Joint and Movement Type

Axes

• An axis is a straight line around which an object rotates. 

• Movements at joints take place in a plane about an axis. 

• The three axis of rotation are:

  • Sagittal axis - passes horizontally from posterior to anterior and its formed by the intersection of the sagittal and transverse planes.

  • Frontal axis - passes horizontally from left to right and is formed by the intersection of the frontal and transverse planes. 

  • Vertical axis - passes vertically from inferior to superior and is formed by the intersection of the frontal and sagittal planes. 

Types of Muscle Contraction

Isometric Contraction

• In general in this form of contraction the muscle length remains constant. It occurs when muscle force balances resistance and no joint movement occurs

  • there is generally no movement resulting from this type of contraction

  • pushing against a fixed object

  • planking 

Isotonic contraction

• an increase in tension (load) results in changes in skeletal muscle length. 

• i.e. lengthening and shortening of the muscle.

Concentric contraction

• Concerns muscle actions that produce a force to overcome the load being acted upon. 

• The work done is referred to as positive work.

Eccentric contraction 

• Refers to muscle action in which the muscle force yields to the imposed load. 

• The work done during a concentric contraction is referred to as negative

Isokinetic contraction

• The term is used in two contexts. 

• First, as a specific muscle contraction and second as a testing and rehabilitation machine. 

• When a muscle contracts so that the body segment to which it is attached moves at a constant speed around the joint, rarely found in sport. 

Reciprocal Inhibition

• When an agonist contracts to move a body segment, it is usual for the antagonist (the muscle with the opposite concentric contraction action) to relax. 

• This means that the agonist is not being opposed by any muscle torque acting in the opposite direction of the motion. 

• This is an automatic action controlled by neurons. 

• When the agonist motor neuron is stimulated the motoneuron to the antagonist is inhibited preventing it from contacting strongly.

Analyze movements in relation to Joint action and Muscle contraction

Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) in relation to eccentric and concentric muscle contractions

• The pain and stiffness felt in muscles several hours to days after unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.

• Brought on by eccentric contractions of the muscle causing pressure at the nerve endings.

  • DOMS results primarily from eccentric muscle action and is associated with structural muscle damage, inflammatory reactions in the muscle, overstretching and overtraining. 

  • DOMS is prevented/minimized by reducing the eccentric component of muscle actions during early training, starting training at a low intensity and gradually increasing the intensity, and warming up before exercise, cooling down after exercise.

4.3. Fundamentals of biomechanics 

• Force: a push or pull on an object

• Speed: maximum rate at which a person is able to move their body

• Velocity: rate at which an object changes position 

• Displacement: distance measured in a stated direction

• Acceleration: rate of change of velocity (speed/direction) per second 

• Momentum: the amount of motion possessed by a moving object

• Impulse: force x time. The motion (momentum) of a body depends not only on the force, but also the duration (time) the force is applied.

Scalar

• length

• mass

• area

• volume

• speed

• density

• pressure

Vector

• displacement 

• direction

• velocity

• acceleration

• momentum

• force

• impulse

• weight

Velocity-time, distance-time, and Force-time graphs of sporting actions

Center of Mass

• The point at which the body is balanced in all directions.

A change in body position during sporting activities can change the position of the center of mass

• The center of mass can change when the body is moving dynamically. 

• The center of mass is not always inside the body, it can be outside of the body depending on position.

Sporting Example: High Jump

• The Scissor Kick

  • The center of mass is within the pelvic girdle. The center of mass is within the body

  • The action involves clearing the bar one leg at a time

  • As the center of mass is within the body, it is more likely that the bar will be hit and the jump will be invalid.

• Frosbery Flop 

  • The center of mass in this jump is externally placed.

  • The arch in the back allows the mass to be shifted to the outside of the body, and there is greater opportunity for clearance.

  • The greater the arch of the back the lower the center of mass is

Components of a Lever System

• The parts that make up a lever system, for example, in the body this would be a bone, a joint, a muscle and the body weight

• 4 components:

  • the load: The object that needs to be moved.

  • the fulcrum: Muscular force applied to move the load.

  • the effort: Joint around which the movement takes place.

  • the lever: Bones in the body serving as the structures for movement.

First Class Levers

• Fulcrum is between the effort and the load.

• Examples in the Body:

  • Limited instances in the body.

  • Triceps' attachment to the elbow joint makes elbow extension a first-class lever.

    • Elbow serves as the fulcrum.

    • Triceps provide the effort.

    • Load is the object being thrown (e.g., javelin).

• Nodding of the head is another example.

  • Load: Weight of the head.

  • Fulcrum: Joint allowing nodding.

  • Effort: Muscular force for nodding.

Second Class Levers

Significant Application in Sport:

• Notable example with great relevance for sport.

• Formed between:

  • Ball of the foot.

  • Gastrocnemius muscle.

  • Load of the body weight.

• Example: Pointing toes or going onto toes.

• Foot acts as the lever bar.

Third Class Lever

• Memory Aid for Lever Systems: 1-2-3 = F-L-E

  • 1 (First Class): Fulcrum is between components.

  • 2 (Second Class): Load is between components.

  • 3 (Third Class): Effort is between components.

• Common Lever System in the Body: Third Class

  • Most prevalent in body movements.

  • Examples:

    • Biceps curl.

    • Hitting a ball with a racket or bat.

    • Knee during kicking.

    • Hip during running.

Newton’s three Laws of Motion

First Law (Law of Inertia)

• An object will remain at rest or constant velocity unless acted upon by an external force.

• Example: An athlete at a starting block will not move unless a force acts upon them. The external force comes from the block and this propels the sprinter out of the blocks when they exert a downward and backward force against the blocks. 

Second Law (Law of Acceleration)

• The rate of change of acceleration of an object is proportional to the force applied and acts in the direction of the force. 

• The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force causing it and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object. 

• Example: Two athletes at a starting block both push off, one is lighter (and has a lesser mass) and therefore accelerates quicker. Two athletes at a starting block of the same mass both push off, the one who applied greater force accelerates faster. 

Third Law (Law of Reaction)

• For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

• Example: The sprinter applied downward and backward force on the immovable starting blocks, they exert back with a forwards and upward reaction force on the sprinter, pushing the sprinter forwards. The harder the sprinter pushes, the greater the reaction force will be. 

The relationship between angular momentum, moment of inertia and angular velocity

• Angular momentum: the product of the body's moment of inertia, and its angular velocity. 

  • M=I*V

• Moment of inertia: It determines the torque (force that causes rotation) needed for a desired angular acceleration about a rotational axis. 

  • It depends on the mass of the object, its shape and its relative point of rotation. 

• Angular velocity: is a ratio of the change of angular displacement and the time during which the change occurred. The rate of which a body spins/rotates/turns through an angle.

  • Angular velocity = angular displacement ÷ time

Concept of angular momentum in relation to sporting activities

Angular Momentum

• Definition: Angular momentum refers to the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It represents the quantity of rotation of a body and is dependent on the mass distribution and the speed of rotation.

• Expression: It is mathematically expressed as the product of an object's moment of inertia and its angular velocity.

Moment of Inertia

• Definition: This term describes an object's resistance to change in its rotational motion. It is analogous to mass in linear motion.

• Factors Affecting Moment of Inertia: The moment of inertia depends on the mass of the object and how this mass is distributed relative to the axis of rotation. For instance, a spread-out mass (like extended arms) increases the moment of inertia.

 Projectiles

• objects or athletes that are propelled in the air

Influences

Height of release 

• the higher the release = the greater distance covered

• the higher the release = the longer spent in the air

• the higher the release = the longer the horizontal component will be acting

Angle of release 

• ideal angle of release is 45 degrees

• the angle changes the relationship between the horizontal and vertical components of projectile

Speed of release (most influential) 

• speed is directly related to the distance

• greater the speed = greater the distance

• initial vertical velocity increases the height of the trajectory, creating a longer flight path

• initial horizontal velocity will increase the length of flight time and distance 

Bernoulli Principle

• Fundamental Concept: The Bernoulli Principle, formulated by Daniel Bernoulli, is a principle in fluid dynamics that states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.

• Fluid Dynamics Application: It is used to explain the behavior of non-viscous fluids in motion and is pivotal in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics.

• Relevance to Projectile Motion: The principle is key to understanding how variations in air pressure can affect the trajectory and velocity of objects, such as balls in sports.

The Bernoulli Principle in Action: Spinning Golf Ball

• Impact of Spin on Airflow:

  • Top Surface of the Ball: The spin causes the air to move faster over the top surface, reducing pressure.

  • Bottom Surface of the Ball: Conversely, the air moves slower under the ball, creating higher pressure.

• Generation of Lift Force: This difference in pressure on either side of the ball creates a lift force, causing the ball to deviate from its initial path.

  • Magnus Effect: This phenomenon is also known as the Magnus effect, where the spin of an object in a fluid medium alters its trajectory.

• Trajectory Alteration in Golf:

  • Distance and Direction: The spin can increase the range and alter the direction of the ball.

  • Skill Application: Golfers leverage this knowledge to control the ball's flight for different shots.

Skill in Sport

Characteristics and Classification of Skill

Skill

• A learned and adaptable ability to carry out a task effectively. 

• It involves the coordination of various physical and cognitive elements to achieve a desired outcome. 

• Developed through practice, experience, and the refinement of motor patterns, making them more automatic and efficient over time.

Different Types of Skill

Motor Skills

• Fine Motor Skills: Involve precise movements, often associated with small muscle groups (e.g., writing, drawing).

• Gross Motor Skills: Encompass larger, more general movements that engage larger muscle groups (e.g., running, jumping).

Cognitive Skills

• Decision-Making: The ability to choose the most appropriate action from various alternatives.

• Problem-Solving: The capacity to find solutions to challenges or obstacles.

Perceptual Skill

• Using senses to assess a situation and help you make decisions (vision, hearing, touch)

Classifying motor skills

Size of the Musculature Involved

• Gross Motor Skills: Movements that involve large muscle groups such as arms and legs.

  • Example: walking, jumping, running, and kicking

• Fine Motor Skills: Involve much smaller muscle groups and often require high levels of hand eye coordination.

  • Example: playing the piano, playing darts, and catching a ball

The Stability of the Environment

• Open skills are those that are significantly affected by the environmental conditions. 

  • The environment is largely variable and unpredictable and the performer has to adapt their movements accordingly.

  • Example: jumping for a rebound in basketball

• Closed skills are skills that are performed in a more stable and predictable environment and can be internally paced by the performer. 

  • Closed skills follow set movement patterns and are performed in the same way each time.

  • Example: Archery

Distinctiveness of the Movement

• Discrete skills: Have a clear start and finish. 

  • Brief and well defined (obvious when it starts and stops)

  • Example: forward roll gymnastics, golf swing, and penalty stroke (hockey).

• Serial skills: Involve linking together skills to form a longer, more together complex movement.

  • Example: series of flips and somersaults, triple jump (hop, skip, jump)

• Continuous skills: Are where the end of one cycle of movement is the beginning of the next. 

  • They are repetitive and rhythmical and take place over a long period of time. 

  • A distance, a target or a set time usually governs the time that the skill is performed for.

  • Example: swimming, running, and cycling

External-Internal Paced Skills

• Externally Paced Skills: The environment, which may include opponents, controls the rate of performing the skill. 

  • The performer must pay attention to external events in order to control his/her rate of movement. 

  • These skills involve reaction, and are usually open skills.

  • Example: in ball games the performer must time his actions with the actions of other players and the ball.

• Internally Paced Skills: The performer controls the rate at which the skill is executed. 

  • These skills are usually closed skills.

  • Example: javelin throw, discus.

The Interaction Continuum

• Individual Skills are those skills that are performed in isolation from others. 

  • Only one performer is involved at a particular time.

  • Ex: archery and the high jump

• Coactive Skills are those skills that are performed with someone else, but with no direct confrontation.

  • Ex: Swimming and track events

• Interactive Skills are where other performers are directly involved and can involve confrontation. 

  • This is because there is an active opposition and this directly influences the skill.

  • Ex: rugby, water polo, and soccer

Compare Skill Profiles for Contrasting Sports

Soccer (Football)

• Skills: Agility, ball control, endurance.

• Physical Attributes: Cardiovascular fitness, speed, and coordination.

Weightlifting

• Skills: Strength, explosive power, technique.

• Physical Attributes: Muscular strength, flexibility, and body composition.

Ability

• Ability is an individual's inherent, enduring capacity to perform various tasks or acquire specific skills.

• Categorization: Abilities can be cognitive (e.g., memory, problem-solving), psychomotor (e.g., coordination, reaction time), or physical (e.g., strength, endurance).

Distinguish between Fleishman's physical proficiency abilities (physical factors) and perceptual-motor abilities (psychomotor factors)

• Physical Proficiency Abilities

  • Examples: Endurance, strength, flexibility.

  • Role: Primarily related to bodily functions and physical attributes.

• Perceptual-Motor Abilities

  • Examples: Coordination, reaction time, spatial orientation.

  • Role: Involves the integration of sensory and motor functions.

Technique

• Technique refers to the specific method or approach used to perform a skill.

• Emphasis: Technique emphasizes precision, efficiency, and proper execution of movements.

The Relationship between Ability, Skill, and Technique

• Abilities: Form the foundation for skill acquisition.

• Skills: Represent the learned behaviors and actions developed through practice.

• Technique: Involves the application of skills in a particular context, focusing on the quality and efficiency of execution.

Difference between a skilled and a novice performer

• Skill Acquisition: Skilled performers have typically undergone extensive practice, refining their abilities and skills over time, while novices are still in the early stages of learning and may lack refined motor patterns.

• Efficiency: Skilled performers execute tasks with greater efficiency, using less energy and demonstrating more precise movements compared to novices.

• Decision Making: Skilled individuals make quicker and more accurate decisions based on their experience and pattern recognition, whereas novices may need more time to analyze situations and make choices.

• Consistency: Skilled performers demonstrate greater consistency in their performance, with fewer errors and variations compared to novices who may exhibit more inconsistency.

• Adaptability: Skilled individuals can adapt to changing conditions more effectively, adjusting their techniques and strategies as needed, whereas novices may struggle with flexibility and may be more rigid in their approach.

Information Processing Model

• Sensation and Perception

  • The information processing model begins with sensation and perception. 

  • Sensation is the capacity to have a physical feeling or perception by receiving information from environmental stimuli through our senses. 

  • Perception is becoming aware of, organizing, and interpreting this information so that it makes sense to us.

• Memory

  • The second part of the information processing model is memory. 

  • Once information is gathered from the environment, it must be stored in memory so that it can be accessed and used later. 

  • Memory is essential for learning and understanding new information, and there's a lot we still don't understand about it.

• Cognition

  • Cognition is the third part of the information processing model. 

  • It refers to how we process information in our minds. 

  • Our cognitive abilities include simple mental processes (like sensation and perception) and more complex mental processes.

  • These processes allow us to make sense of the information we receive from the world around us.

Welford’s Model of Information Processing

• Sensory Input: The sensory information relevant to the situation is stored in short-term memory. 

  • The information is taken in through the senses before a decision is made in three ways. 

  • These are; what we see (vision) what we hear (auditory) what we sense (proprioception).

  • Exteroceptors: These are receptors located in the skin and mucous membranes that detect external stimuli such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.

  • Proprioceptors: These receptors are found in muscles, tendons, and joints, and they provide information about the position and movement of body parts.

  • Interoceptors: These receptors are located in internal organs and provide information about internal conditions such as hunger, thirst, and pain.

• Short and Long-Term Memory: All information gathered from the various sensory inputs is stored for a split second in the short-term memory before processing. 

  • It is suggested that short-term memory can only hold up to seven pieces of information and retain for less than a minute.  

  • Long-term memory, which appears to have a limitless capacity, contains information about past experiences.

• Decision Process: The decision process occurs by comparing the current situation, held in the short-term memory, with previous experiences, held in long-term memory, to determine appropriate action.

• Action: The action is performed regarding the movement pattern stored in long-term memory. 

  • Once the action is completed, the situation and result are stored in long-term memory for future reference.

• Effector control refers to the regulation of movements by the nervous system. Welford's Model emphasizes the role of feedback in controlling motor actions. 

• Feedback is information received after executing a movement that allows for adjustments to be made. This model suggests that feedback is crucial for achieving accurate and efficient motor control.

Signal-Detection Process

• Signal detection involves distinguishing between meaningful signals and background noise. 

• It includes the processes of sensitivity and decision-making, influenced by factors like experience and motivation.

• Early signal detection refers to the ability to detect a signal within noise. 

  • Signal Detection Theory explores how individuals make decisions about the presence or absence of a signal in the presence of uncertainty or noise. 

• Improving signal detection involves enhancing sensitivity to signals and reducing response bias.

Characteristics of short-term sensory store, short-term memory, and long-term memory

• Short-Term Sensory Store (STSS): Brief storage of sensory information (e.g., iconic memory for visual stimuli).

• Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity storage for information actively being processed.

• Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent storage with a vast capacity for information and experiences.

The Relationship between Selective Attention and Memory

• Memory Definition (Tulving, 1985): Memory is the capacity that allows organisms to benefit from past experiences. It involves storing previous occurrences in long-term memory for retrieval in future experiences.

• Selective Attention (Welford, 1968; Wickens, 1980): Selective attention is the ability to focus on one thing at a time or on multiple things that require different areas of the brain. It involves prioritizing relevant information while ignoring distractions.

  • Role in Competitive Sports

    • In competitive sports, memory is crucial for recalling and retrieving knowledge from long-term memory to inform current performance. Selective attention is essential for focusing only on relevant memories and information needed for the task at hand, filtering out distractions.

• Application in Performance

  • In a sporting context, selective memory allows athletes to recall relevant training and skills while filtering out irrelevant information. For example, during a game, an athlete may remember various training drills and strategies, but selectively focus on the specific movements and decisions required in the current situation.

• Example

  • In a touch game, a player performing an attacking line move may recall various training sessions and drills related to that move. With the aid of selective attention, they focus only on the specific aspects relevant to their current position, situation, and the movements of their teammates and opponents. This selective focus enhances decision-making and performance during the game.

Compare Different Methods of Memory Improvement

• Rehearsal: the more a memory is rehearsed, the more likely it is that it will be remembered.

• Coding: crucial first step to creating a new memory. It allows the received item of interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored and then recalled later from short-term or long-term memory.

• Brevity: the quicker a process is learned, the more likely it is to be remembered.

• Clarity: initially you don’t always know what to respond to; the coach/teacher can begin with a simple approach and build on the information; help you focus.

• Chunking: pieces of information are grouped together then remembered as one piece of information.

• Organization: involve structuring information in meaningful ways, such as categorization or creating mnemonic devices.

• Association practice: involves linking new information with existing knowledge to facilitate encoding and retrieval.

Response Time

• Response Time = Reaction Time + Movement Time

• the time from the introduction of a stimulus to the completion of the action required to deal with the situation.

  • Reaction time: time elapsed for the onset of a stimulus to the start of the response.

  • Movement time: time it takes to carry out the motor aspect of the performance.

Factors that Determine Response Time

• Response time is ability, having individual and group variance (for example, gender and age).

• Includes stimulus transmission, detection, recognition, decision to respond, nerve transmission time and initiation of action.

• Gets faster during childhood/adolescence

• Gets slower as we get older

• Movement time depends on fitness

• Number of choices to be made

• Males have quicker reactions than female, but the reaction times of females deteriorate less quickly than males

• Hick’s Law: Hick (1952) found that as you double the number of stimulus-response couplings there is a linear increase in response time.

Psychological Refractory Period (PRP)

• The period of time during which the response to a second stimulus is significantly slowed because a first stimulus is still being processed.

• The processing of stimulus 2 cannot take place until processing of stimulus 1 is complete.

Example: Tennis

• S1: player 1 plays a forehand drive towards player 2’s forehand

• R1: player 2 prepared to return with a forehand drive

• S2: ball hits net, slow and changed direction

• R2: player 2 must change shot selection from forehand to backhand

Example: Dummy in Rugby

• S1: player 1 shapes to pass the ball

• R1: player 2 follows the direction of the intended pass

• S2: the ball has not been passed

• R2: player 2 must focus attention back on the ball carrier (player 1)

Motor Program

• Defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory regardless of whether feedback is used in their execution.

• A PLAN of the whole skill or pattern of movement

  • Catching a ball in basketball

  • Hitting a ball in tennis

• A whole plan (executive program/motor program) and subroutines

  • Executive: a number of motor programs put together (gymnastics routine)

  • Subroutine: building block of a motor program; “mini skills” (kicking, catching, throwing, dribbling)

• Executive programs can only be executed successfully by training and focusing on subroutines

• Coordination of subroutines

  • When a specific action is required, the memory process retrieves the stored programme and transmits the motor commands via nerve impulses to the relevant muscles allowing movement to occur. 

    • This is known as ‘executive motor programme.

  • This programme is recalled when needed. 

    • If this skill is learned then the reaction time to produce the skill is very short.

  • When the performer becomes more skilled than the motor programme, it is taken away and superseded by a new programme. 

Compare Motor Programs from both Open and Closed Loop Perspectives

• Open loops – performance of a skill without recourse to feedback.

  • hitting (or attempting to hit) a 100mph fastball or a 140mph tennis serve

  • (no alteration of movement possible – since the stimuli is too fast for feedback/adjustments to occur)

• Closed loops – involves the process of feedback.

  • not all movements take place so quickly – many can be altered during their execution

  • Control is internal (proprioceptors detect and correct errors)

  • Perceptual trace - memory for the feel of successful past experience/movements

  • (slower pitch reaction, slower serves, deflected or redirected balls)

  • Memory trace refers to the physical or chemical changes in the brain associated with memory storage. 

Role of Feedback in Information Processing Models

• Feedback – describes information resulting from an action or response.

• Concurrent feedback is received during the execution of a task, while terminal feedback is provided after the task is completed. 

Intrinsic/Extrinsic

• Intrinsic feedback – available to a performer/athlete without outside help.

• Extrinsic feedback – is provided by someone (coach/teacher) or something else (stopwatch, game clock, tape measure).

Knowledge of Results/Knowledge of Performance

• Knowledge of Result - is a post response information concerning the outcome of the action (visual).

• Knowledge of Performance - consists of post-response information concerning the nature of the movement (feel).

Positive/Negative

• Positive: telling someone they did well; or prescriptive feedback (telling the learner how to improve)

• Negative: concentrates on errors; “you’re wrong”; demotivation and of little use to beginners (they need prescriptive feedback)

Role of Feedback with the Learning Process

• Know the difference between Knowledge of results (KR) vs. Knowledge of Performance (KP)

• The most obvious form of KR is visual (self recognized or w/assistance)

• The most obvious form of KP is the “feel” of the movement (i.e recognition of the sensory consequences)

• It can be concurrent or;

  • Terminal feedback via a coach or video review.

  • Feedback can also be positive or negative.

Reinforcement of learning

• Motivation: we all like praise from those we perceive as being important. 

  • Failure of coaches giving praise can result in loss of self-confidence in the players. 

  • Too much praise can have a negative effect in that the words end up meaning nothing or they learner will begin not to perceive them at all.

• Adaptation of Performance: prescriptive feedback (performer need to be told what to do in order to improve performance)

• Punishment: focuses on reducing an unwanted behavior but does not teach a replacement for it

Principles of Skill Training

Distinguish Learning and Performance

Learning

• Learning refers to the relatively permanent change in behavior or capability that results from practice or experience. 

• It involves the acquisition of knowledge or skills that can be retained over time. 

• It is a process that occurs over an extended period, and it often involves the internalization of information or the development of new abilities. 

• This internalization is not always immediately observable and may not manifest in performance until later stages.

Performance

• Performance, on the other hand, is the actual execution of a skill during a specific instance or task. 

• It is the observable behavior or action that occurs in real-time. 

• It can be influenced by various factors such as motivation, fatigue, stress, or external conditions. 

• Unlike learning, performance may not necessarily lead to permanent changes. 

• A person can perform a skill without necessarily having learned it in the long term.

Phases of Learning

Cognitive/Verbal (Early Phase)

• Focus: In this initial phase, learners are primarily focused on understanding the task and the requirements involved.

• Mental Model Formation: Learners form a mental representation or model of the task. 

  • This involves grasping the fundamental concepts, rules, and strategies.

• Trial and Error: Individuals may rely on trial-and-error to discover what works and what doesn't.

• High Cognitive Load: Cognitive resources are heavily engaged, and the learning process may feel challenging and effortful.

• Feedback: Learners often benefit from explicit instruction and feedback during this phase.

• Example:

  • Imagine someone learning to ride a bicycle for the first time. 

  • In the cognitive phase, they grasp the basic concepts of balance, steering, and pedaling. 

    • They form a mental model of how these elements work together.

Associative/Motor (Intermediate Phase) 

• Refinement of Movements: Learners start to refine their movements based on feedback received during the cognitive phase. 

  • They work on minimizing errors and improving the efficiency of their actions.

• Practice and Repetition: This phase involves extensive practice. Learners engage in repetitive activities to solidify their understanding and enhance skill execution.

• Decreased Cognitive Load: As skills become more familiar, cognitive load decreases. Movements become smoother and more automatic.

• Error Detection and Correction: Errors are still present, but learners become more adept at detecting and correcting them independently.

• Example:

  • Continuing with the bicycle example, in the associative phase, the learner practices riding regularly. 

  • They focus on refining their balance, pedaling technique, and steering. 

  • Feedback from each ride helps them make adjustments and improve their efficiency.

Autonomous (Final Phase)

• Automation of Skills: In the autonomous phase, skills become automated, requiring minimal conscious thought for execution.

• Fluency: Movements are executed with fluency and precision. The learner can perform the task with less effort and attention.

• Implicit Knowledge: Knowledge of the task becomes implicit, meaning it's ingrained and can be executed without explicit awareness.

• Advanced Strategies: Learners may start to develop and employ more advanced strategies, as the foundational skills are well-mastered.

• Example:

  • In the autonomous phase of learning to ride a bicycle, the individual can effortlessly pedal, steer, and maintain balance without consciously thinking about each action. 

  • Riding becomes a fluid and automatic process, allowing the individual to focus on more advanced aspects, such as navigating complex terrain or performing tricks.

Types of Learning Curves

Positive Acceleration

• Rapid Initial Progress: This type of learning curve indicates that, at the beginning of the learning process, individuals make rapid and substantial progress.

• Steep Incline: The curve rises sharply in the early stages, reflecting a quick acquisition of skills or knowledge.

• Early Gains: Learners experience significant improvements in performance or understanding early on.

• Example: 

  • Consider someone learning a new language. 

  • In the positive acceleration phase, they might quickly grasp basic vocabulary, grammar rules, and pronunciation, leading to noticeable progress in their language skills.

Negative Acceleration (Plateau)

• Slowed Progress: After an initial period of rapid progress, the rate of learning slows down, and the curve levels off.

• Plateau Phase: The plateau represents a period where there is little to no improvement despite continued practice or experience.

• Diminishing Returns: Additional effort may yield minimal gains, and learners may feel stuck at a certain level of proficiency.

• Example: 

  • Using the language learning example, a learner might experience a plateau after reaching a certain intermediate level. 

  • Despite continued study, they may find it challenging to progress to a more advanced level of fluency.

S-Shaped Curve

• Combination of Phases: The S-shaped curve combines elements of positive acceleration, a plateau, and eventual positive acceleration again.

• Initial Acceleration: Early on, there is rapid progress similar to the positive acceleration phase.

• Plateau: After the initial gains, progress levels off, creating a plateau.

• Second Acceleration: With continued effort or a change in approach, there is a renewed period of rapid progress.

• Example:

  • Imagine someone learning to play a musical instrument. 

  • Initially, they may make swift progress as they learn basic chords and techniques (positive acceleration). 

  • However, as they tackle more complex pieces, they may experience a plateau. 

  • With dedicated practice or a new learning strategy, they might enter a second phase of accelerated progress.

Linear Learning Curve

• A linear learning curve represents a steady, consistent rate of learning over time. 

• It implies that the learner makes uniform progress without significant fluctuations or plateaus. 

Factors that Contributes to the Different Rates of Learning

Prior Experience

• Individuals with prior experience in a related task or skill may learn more quickly.

• Past exposure can provide a foundation, making it easier to grasp new concepts or techniques.

• Example: Someone with experience in playing a musical instrument might find it easier to learn a new instrument compared to a complete beginner.

Motivation

• Motivation plays a crucial role in the learning process. 

• High motivation often leads to increased effort and engagement, which can accelerate the rate of learning.

• Example: A person motivated to learn a new language for travel purposes may dedicate more time and effort to language learning, resulting in faster progress.

Quality of Coaching

• Effective coaching plays a crucial role in facilitating skill acquisition in sports. 

• Coaches who possess knowledge of pedagogy, sports science, and specific techniques can provide valuable guidance and feedback to students. 

• Their ability to break down complex skills into manageable steps and provide tailored instruction can significantly enhance the learning process.

Teaching Environment

• The learning environment, including facilities, resources, and organizational structure, can impact students' ability to acquire skills in sports. 

• Access to adequate training facilities, equipment, and technology can create opportunities for meaningful practice and skill development. 

• Additionally, a supportive and positive learning atmosphere fosters motivation and engagement, which are essential for effective learning.

Age-Related Factors

• Age can influence the learning rate in sports due to developmental differences in cognitive, physical, and emotional domains. 

• Younger students may have greater plasticity in motor skill development but may require more basic instruction and supervision. 

• Older students may possess more advanced cognitive abilities and physical capabilities, allowing them to grasp complex skills more quickly. 

• However, age-related factors such as declining physical fitness or increased risk of injury in older individuals may also affect the learning process.

Cognitive Abilities

• Variances in cognitive abilities, such as memory, attention, and problem-solving skills, can impact how quickly individuals grasp and apply new information.

• Example: A person with strong analytical skills might excel in learning complex mathematical concepts faster than someone with weaker analytical abilities.

Task Complexity

Simple Tasks vs. Complex Tasks:

• Generally, simple tasks are learned more quickly than complex ones. 

• The complexity of a task can influence the amount of time and effort required for mastery.

• Example: Learning to tie shoelaces is a relatively simple task that can be mastered quickly, while mastering a complex software programming language may take much longer.

Practice Methods

• Varied Practice

  • Engaging in varied practice, where the learner works on different aspects or variations of a skill, can enhance overall learning. 

  • This contrasts with repetitive practice on the same task.

  • Example: In sports, a basketball player practicing varied shots from different positions on the court is likely to improve more rapidly than one repeatedly practicing the same shot.

• Distributed Practice

  • Distributing practice sessions over time, rather than cramming all practice into one session, enhances retention and promotes long-term learning.

  • Example: Learning a musical instrument through regular, spaced-out practice sessions over several weeks is likely to result in better long-term proficiency.

• Focused Practice

  • Focused practice involves concentrating on specific aspects of a skill that need improvement. It is targeted and purposeful, leading to more efficient learning.

  • Example: In language learning, focused practice might involve concentrating on mastering a particular grammar rule or pronunciation pattern until proficiency is achieved.

Concept of Transfer

• Transfer is the effect of previous learning on the performance of a new skill or the influence of one skill on the learning of another.

Types

Skill to Skill Transfer

• Involves the application of skills learned in one context to a different but related context. 

• For example, a tennis player may transfer their ability to execute a backhand stroke to learning a similar technique in racquetball. 

  • This type of transfer relies on recognizing similarities between skills and adapting existing knowledge and muscle memory to new situations.

Practice to Performance Transfer

• Refers to the ability to translate skills practiced in training or practice sessions to real-game situations. 

• Athletes must be able to execute learned skills effectively during competitive play, applying techniques honed during practice to dynamic and unpredictable game scenarios.

Abilities to Skills Transfer

• Involves how innate or natural abilities influence the acquisition and refinement of specific skills. 

• For instance, an individual with exceptional hand-eye coordination may find it easier to learn and master skills such as catching or hitting a ball. 

  • These innate abilities serve as a foundation upon which skills are developed and refined through practice and experience.

Bilateral Transfer

• Occurs when learning or practicing a skill with one limb (e.g., dominant hand) enhances the performance of the same skill with the opposite limb (e.g., non-dominant hand).

•  For example, improving accuracy in shooting a basketball with the right hand may also lead to enhanced accuracy when shooting with the left hand. 

  • This transfer of learning can occur from left-to-right or right-to-left limbs.

Stage to Stage Transfer

• Involves progressing through the stages of skill acquisition, from cognitive to associative, and finally to autonomous stages. 

• Initially, learners focus on understanding the skill and its components (cognitive stage), then refine movements and reduce errors through practice (associative stage), and finally execute the skill automatically and fluently without conscious effort (autonomous stage). 

• Transfer between these stages involves transitioning and building upon previously acquired knowledge and skills.

Principles to Skills Transfer

• Refers to the application of theoretical principles or concepts to the practical execution of skills. 

• Athletes learn fundamental principles such as biomechanics, tactics, and strategies, which inform their decision-making and skill execution during performance. 

• For example, understanding the principle of leverage in martial arts may improve a fighter's ability to execute a takedown technique effectively.

Different Types of Practice

• Massed Practice: Continuous repetition without rest intervals.

• Distributed Practice: Spacing out practice sessions with rest intervals.

• Blocked Practice: Repeating the same task continuously.

• Random Practice: Varied tasks in a random order.

• Fixed practice: involves repeating the same task or skill under consistent conditions.

• Variable practice: involves practicing the same skill under different conditions or contexts. 

• Mental practice: also known as imagery or visualization, involves mentally rehearsing a skill without physical execution. 

Types of Presentation

Whole Practice

• Whole practice involves executing the entire skill in one go.

• Characteristics: Continuous, uninterrupted execution.

• Application: Best for simpler or continuous skills like cycling.

• Benefits: Aids in grasping the overall flow and sequence of the skill.

• Examples: Running a complete 100m sprint in practice.

Whole-Part-Whole Practice

• This method starts with practicing the skill as a whole, breaking it down into parts, and then practicing it as a whole again.

• Characteristics: Combination of holistic and segmented learning.

• Application: Useful for complex skills like a gymnastics routine.

• Benefits: Balances understanding of individual components and the overall skill.

• Examples: Practicing a dance routine in its entirety, then focusing on difficult steps, and finally performing the entire routine again.

Progressive Part Practice

• Focuses on learning a skill in segments, adding more parts progressively.

• Characteristics: Step-by-step, accumulative learning.

• Application: Effective for skills with distinct stages, like a complex dive in swimming.

• Benefits: Simplifies learning of multifaceted skills.

• Examples: Learning a cricket batting stroke by first mastering the grip, then the stance, and finally the stroke.

Part Practice

• In part practice, segments of a skill are practiced in isolation.

• Characteristics: Concentrated focus on specific skill segments.

• Application: Ideal for addressing specific aspects of a skill, like a particular move in martial arts.

• Benefits: Allows in-depth focus and correction of each part.

• Examples: Practicing just the footwork in football separately from ball-handling skills.

Spectrum of Teaching Styles

• Command Style: Teacher-centered, direct instruction.

• Reciprocal Style: Interaction between teacher and students.

• Problem-Solving Style: Encourages students to solve problems on their own.

Measurement and Evaluation of Human Performance

6.1 Statistical Analysis

Error Bars

Error Bars: are a graphical representation of the variability of the data. They depict the standard deviation from the mean.

Mean and Standard Deviation

Mean: the mathematical average of a set of 2 or more numbers.

Standard Deviation: a statistic that measures the dispersion of a data relative to its mean.

Standard deviation is used to summarize the spread of values around the mean, and within a normal distribution approximately 68% and 95% fall within + or - 1 or 2 standard deviation points respectively.

Comparing Spreads of Data

• A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value.

• Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates a wider spread around the mean.

Coefficient Variation

Coefficient Variation: the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean expressed as a percentage.

Significance of Difference Between Two Sets of Data

For the t-test to be applied, ideally the data should have a normal distribution and a sample size of at least 10. The t-test can be used to compare two sets of data and measure the amount of overlap. Only two-tailed, paired, and unpaired t-tests are expected.

• Two-Tailed T Test: a method in which the critical area of a distribution is two-sided and tests whether a sample is greater than or less than a certain range of values.

• Paired T Test: a statistical procedure used to determine whether the mean difference between two sets of observations is zero.

• Unpaired T-Test: a statistical procedure that compares the averages/means of two independent or unrelated groups to determine if there is a significant difference between the two.

• Probability: the likelihood of the difference between two data sets being statistically significant.

Correlation

Correlation: the relationship between two variables.

• If both variables increase, or both variables decrease, this is described as a positive correlation.

• If one variable increases the other decreases (or vice versa) this is described as a negative correlation.

• A correlation can be identified from observations without a scientific experiment. However, just because there exists a relationship between two variables, this does not indicate that there is necessarily a causal relationship between the two - there may be other variables influencing the relationship that have not been shown. To establish cause in a relationship a controlled scientific experiment must be done.

6.2 Study Design

Specificity, Accuracy, Reliability, and Validity in Fitness Testing

Specificity: a test directly targets the fitness component most relevant to a particular activity or sport.

• A marathon runner fitness assessment would prioritize endurance tests like a long-distance run, not a weightlifting max.

• Specificity ensures the test reflects the demands of the target activity.

Accuracy: how close the test results are to the true fitness level.

• A stopwatch versus an electronic timing system for a sprint. The electronic system provides a more accurate reflection of the actual speed.

• Accurate tests give a clearer picture of strengths and weaknesses.

Reliability: a test that yields consistent results when repeated under similar conditions.

• A reliable test should produce similar scores for both attempts.

• Reliability ensures the test isn't influenced by random factors, giving confidence in the results.

Validity: ensures the test measures what it's supposed to measure in the context of fitness.

• A valid VO2 max test truly reflects the body's maximum oxygen uptake, a crucial aspect of aerobic fitness.

• A valid test provides meaningful data for gauging fitness levels in a specific area.

• Using repeated measures for higher validity.

Importance of Study Design

Causality in experimental results by the inclusion of:

• Control Groups: used to compare to an experimental group in a test of a causal hypothesis

• randomization

• Placebos: to keep the participants unknown to whether they are being given the causal agent that is being tested

• Blinding: staff blinded to treatment allocation to minimize bias

• Double-blinding: a control group test where neither the evaluator nor the participant knows which items are controls; they are randomly assigned

• Statistical Analysis: the collection and interpretation of data to uncover patterns and trends.

Double-Blind Experiment: an experiment in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who has been given the placebo.

Weak Experimental Design:

With a Control Group:

With a Placebo:

PAR-Q

Many fitness tests involve physical exertion, sometimes intense. To prioritize safety, it's crucial to assess an individual's readiness before they participate. The Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) is a helpful tool for this purpose. Completing the PAR-Q is recommended not just before fitness testing, but also when seeking exercise advice or joining a gym or sports club. If a person answers “Yes” to one or more questions they must see their doctor before undertaking any physical tests, training programs, or playing sports.

PAR-Q:

Evaluating Field, Laboratory, Sub-Maximal, and Maximal Tests

Field Tests

• Conducted in a real-world setting, often replicating the environment of a specific sport or activity (e.g., running a timed lap on a track).

• Advantages: Specific to the sport, readily available equipment, reflects real-world demands.

• Disadvantages: Environmental factors can influence results (weather, surface), and less precise measurement compared to lab tests.

Laboratory Tests

• Performed in a controlled environment with specialized equipment (e.g., treadmill test with VO2 max measurement).

• Advantages: Highly accurate and reliable data, controlled environment minimizes external factors, allows for precise physiological measurements.

• Disadvantages: Expensive equipment, less sport-specific, might not translate perfectly to real-world performance.

Sub-maximal Tests

• Push participants to a challenging but sustainable level, stopping well before exhaustion. (e.g., heart rate monitoring during a moderate jog).

• Advantages: Less stress on the body, quicker recovery time, safer for individuals with health concerns.

• Disadvantages: Requires estimating maximal capacity from sub-maximal performance, a less precise measure of peak ability.

Maximal Tests

• Demand participants exert themselves to the point of exhaustion (e.g., Wingate anaerobic test).

• Advantages: Direct measure of peak performance capabilities.

• Disadvantages: Requires high motivation and effort, can be physically demanding, and potentially risky for some individuals.

6.3 Components of Fitness

Health-Related Fitness vs Performance-Related Fitness

Health-related

Health-Related Factors: physiologically base and determine the ability of an individual to meet the physical demands of the activity.

• body composition (endomorph, ectomorph, mesomorph - the percentage of the body that is fat, muscle, or bone

• cardio-respiratory fitness (aerobic capacity)

• flexibility (range of movement possible at a joint)

• muscular endurance (the ability for the muscles to be used for long periods)

• strength (the ability of the muscles to exert large amounts of force)

Each of the components is required to a certain extent for day-to-day activity. A person would need cardiovascular endurance to make the walk up the stairs to get to work for example. The focus of health-related fitness is to improve the overall health of an individual.

• Health-related fitness benefits all activities, including sports.

  • Performance-related fitness is specific to each sport (e.g., sprinter needs speed, tennis player needs agility).

  • Some performance-related components (balance, coordination) become health-related for certain populations (e.g., elderly).

Skill related

Skill-Related Factors: based upon the neuromuscular system and determine how successfully a person can perform a specific skill.

• Agility

• Balance

• Coordination

• Power

• Reaction time

• Speed

Specialized components are needed more during sports events.

Fitness Tests

Health Related

Aerobic Capacity

• the ability to provide and sustain energy aerobically.

→ dependent on the ability of the cardiovascular system to transport and utilize oxygen during sustained exercise.

Flexibility

• the range of movement at a joint.

→ determined by the elasticity of ligaments and tendons, the strength and opposition of surrounding muscles, and the shape of articulating bones.

Muscular Endurance

• the ability of a particular muscle group to keep working at the derided level of effort for as long as the situation demands. It is often controlled by the body’s tolerance to the increasing levels of lactic acid which the activity crates.

Strength

• the maximum force that can be developed in a muscle or group of muscles in a single maximal contraction.

Skill-Related

Agility

• the ability to move and change direction and position of the body quickly and effectively while under control.

→ includes coordination, balance, speed, and flexibility.

Speed

• the ability to put the body parts into motion quickly, or the maximum rate that a person can move over a specific distance.

Balance

• the maintenance of the center of mass over a base of support while the body is static or dynamic.

Coordination

• the interaction between motor and nervous systems; the ability to perform motor tasks accurately and effectively.

Power

• a powerful movement achieved as quickly as possible; the combination of strength and speed.

Reaction Time

• the time taken to initiate a response to a given stimulus.

→ dependent on the ability of an individual to process information and initiate a response by the neuro-muscular system.

Body Composition

• quantifying the different components of a human body. The selection of compartments varies by model but may include fat, bone, water, and muscle.

Multistage Fitness Test (Cardio-Respiratory Fitness)

• Description: This involves running back and forth between cones set at increasing distances with progressively shorter rest periods. Each stage has a designated speed, and participants have to maintain that pace to continue. The test ends when a participant fails to complete a stage or stops due to exhaustion.

• Validity and Reliability: The test is considered valid for estimating VO2 max (maximal oxygen uptake) in healthy individuals, but less so for those with pre-existing conditions. Reliability can be good with proper administration and participant motivation.

• Limitations: Requires specific equipment (cones, audio guide), and supervision, and may not be suitable for beginners or those with limited mobility. Is not suitable for long-distance runners. The test if done properly is a test of maximal anaerobic capacity, and can therefore be dangerous to participants despite offering accurate results.

Cooper Run

• Description: A simple test where participants run or walk as far as they can in 12 minutes. Distance covered is used to estimate VO2max.

• Validity and Reliability: Reasonably valid for estimating VO2max in adults, especially compared to other field tests. Reliability can be affected by factors like pacing strategy and motivation.

• Limitations: Requires a track or measured course. Performance can be influenced by weather conditions and running experience.

Harvard Step Test

• Description: Participants step on and off a platform at a predetermined rate (usually 30 steps per minute) for five minutes or until exhaustion. Heart rate is then measured during recovery periods. A scoring system based on recovery time and heart rate is used to estimate aerobic fitness.

• Validity and Reliability: Moderately valid for estimating VO2 max, particularly in individuals who cannot perform running tests. Reliability can be good with proper administration.

• Limitations: Requires a specific platform height and controlled environment. May not be suitable for people with knee or ankle issues.

6.4 Principles of Training

General Training Program

1. Warm-up and stretching should be included in a general training program and should be the first thing done before the main event is carried out. This is because the warm-up prepares the body for the more strenuous exercise that is about ready to occur. To do this the warm-up increases heart rate and breathing rate and warms the body up.

• Static Stretching: stretching exercises that are performed without movement.

• Active Stretching: slow stretching in which flexibility is achieved without assistance. The contraction of the opposing muscles helps to relax the stretched muscles.

• Passive Stretching: a slow stretching in which flexibility is achieved with a partner or apparatus to further stretch the muscles and joints.

2. A general training program should also include a cool down to slowly reduce the intensity of the activity done as the main event. This slow decline from an endurance activity helps prevent muscle soreness due to a build-up of the bye product of lactic acid. To maintain flexibility and help keep muscles loose the cool down should also include stretching activities.

3. A general training program should also include recreational activities to keep the performer enjoying sport and keeping relaxed and healthy. Doing these sorts of activities contributes to both better physical and mental well-being.

Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF): A progression on passive stretching, whereby after the stretch is held, the muscles are contracted isometrically. Also known as the CRAC (contract relex antagonist contraction) method.

Key Principles of Training Program Design

• Progression: gradually increasing the amount of exercise.

• Overload (frequency, intensity, and duration): FITT principles.

• Specificity: The process of replicating the characteristics of physical activity in training to ensure its beneficial performance.

• Reversibility: How long it takes to lose that base fitness. If the athlete does not use it, she/he will lose it.

• Variety: Providing different activities, formats, and drills in training while still addressing the aims of the training program. Also helps decrease boredom.

• Periodization: A structured, organized approach to training.

Monitoring Exercise Intensity

Karwonen Method

• The Karvonen or percent heart rate reserve method (HRR) considers the difference between resting heart rate (HRrest) and maximal heart rate (HRmax). The training heart rate is calculated by taking a percentage of HRR and adding it to the HRrest. It is important to select an exercise intensity appropriate to the health needs and fitness status of the individual.

• A training heart rate can be established by using the concept of maximum heart rate resource

• Max Heart Rate = 200 - age

• Heart Rate Reserve = MHR - HR rest

• Karoven suggests that an aerobic training zone of 60-75% of the max HHR reserve should be used when designing training programs. This confirms that work is done at the correct intensity. This allows a training rate to be calculated

• THR 75% = HR rest + 0.75 (HR max - HR rest)

Perceived Exertion

• Exercise intensity: level of stress during exercise.

  • Indirectly related to exercise duration.

  • Measured in various ways:

    • Percentage of maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max)

    • Peak oxygen consumption

    • Percent VO2 reserve: the difference between V·O2max and resting oxygen consumption

  • Requires specialized equipment (e.g., metabolic carts) for accurate measurement.