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Developmental Psychology
Study of how people grow and change across the lifespan, focusing on biological, cognitive, psychological, and social functioning.
Culture
Set of unwritten rules governing values, beliefs, and behaviors within a social group, influencing various aspects of daily life and psychological constructs.
Individualistic cultures
Prioritize individual interests, independence, and autonomy, explaining behavior in terms of personal decisions and characteristics.
Collectivist cultures
Prioritize group interests, interdependence, and relationships, explaining behavior in terms of adherence to group norms.
Ethnocentrism
Our own culture influences how we perceive and interact with the world, impacting our understanding of human behavior.
Human Origins
Homo Sapiens evolved around 200,000 years ago, living vastly different lives now compared to earlier times, with culture playing a significant role in development.
World Population Growth
Majority of the global population resides in developing countries, emphasizing the importance of considering global development in the study of human development.
Freud's Psychosexual Theory
Early theory focusing on unresolved childhood trauma and sexual desire as the primary force driving human development.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
Development theory emphasizing the need for successful integration into society across the lifespan, with 8 key stages characterized by crises.
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
Focuses on contextual influences shaping development, highlighting interactions between systems and the role of cultural and historical influences.
Protection from physical and psychological harm
Ensuring safety and well-being of participants during research
Informed consent
Participants' voluntary agreement to take part in a study after being informed about the research
Confidentiality
Keeping participants' information private and anonymous
Deception and debriefing
Occasional use of deception in research followed by informing participants about the true nature of the study
Questionnaires
Research method using standardized questions to collect data from a large sample
Interviews
Gathering qualitative data by allowing individuals to describe experiences in their own words
Observations
Studying individuals' behavior in natural or controlled settings to understand cognitive development or attachment
Ethnographic research
Immersing researchers in the lives of participants to understand daily life in a specific cultural context
Case studies
Detailed exploration of individuals or small groups to investigate specific events or issues
Biological measurements
Using advanced technology to understand biological factors related to cognitive functioning, emotions, and relationships
Experiments
Research method to evaluate interventions' effectiveness by randomly assigning participants to treatment or control groups
Birth
Involves particular risks due to the large size of the infant and head
Neonatal and Maternal Mortality
Rates vary between developed and developing countries, with potential contributing factors like discrimination and stress
Stillbirth
Often overlooked, with preventable cases and importance of monitoring foetal movement
Newborn Health Checks
Include APGAR and Brazelton tests for assessing newborn health
Neonatal Reflexes
Important innate reflexes in newborns, serving as precursors to voluntary movements
Neonatal Senses
Vision least developed at birth, while taste and touch are well developed
Caring for the Neonate - Feeding
Breastfeeding recommended for 2 years, influencing long-term health outcomes
Caring for the Neonate - Crying
Crying as a primary form of communication, influenced by cultural practices
Physical Growth
Rapid in the first year, following cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles
Brain Development
Rapid in the first year, involving dendritic connections and myelination
Motor Development
Progresses from no voluntary movements to walking or crawling in the first year
Sensory Development
Includes sensation and perception, with milestones like binocular vision and intermodal perception.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Involves the concept of schemes, which are cognitive structures for processing, organizing, and interpreting information. These schemes are refined through processes of adaptation and organization, including assimilation and accommodation.
Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage in Piaget's theory, occurring from birth to age 2, where infants learn to coordinate sensory information with motor activities. It includes substages like simple reflexes, primary circular reactions, secondary circular reactions, and coordination of secondary schemes.
Violation of Expectation
Demonstrates that infants will look longer at events that violate their assumptions, indicating cognitive capabilities. It can show abilities like object permanence earlier than Piaget suggested.
Learning Theories
Include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning theory, which explain how infants learn through reflexes, reinforcement, and observation and imitation.
Information Processing Approach
Views cognitive change as a continuous process focusing on discrete thinking processes, operating on information through the mental system to enhance retention and application of new knowledge.
Joint Attention
Emerges around 6 months, where infants follow adult cues and gestures, allowing shared understandings, social referencing, and foundations for emotional and language development.
Language Development
Involves acquiring foundations of language, coordinating bodily movements, understanding object permanence, developing schemes, remembering events, and showing preferences for new stimuli during the first year of life.
Brain Development in Toddlerhood
Toddler years involve rapid growth and peak production of synapses in the frontal lobes around age 3, followed by synaptic pruning.
Sensitive Periods
Early years are crucial for language development; early detection of hearing impairments is vital to prevent lasting speech and language difficulties.
Motor Development in Toddlerhood
Toddlers make significant motor advances, being able to run, climb, jump, and show hand preference by the third birthday.
Toilet Training
Toddlers typically show readiness between 20-36 months, and a child-led approach is recommended for successful training.
Weaning
Most Australian infants wean during the first year, while traditional cultures may continue feeding into the 2nd or 3rd year.
Interoception
The lesser-known sense helps in understanding internal body signals; challenges in processing this information may lead to difficulties in identifying pain or full bladder.
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Describes stages of infant/toddler cognition, including object permanence, deferred imitation, and mental combinations.
Information Processing
Mental strategies operate on information, enhancing retention and effective use; sustained attention and executive function predict later outcomes.
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Emphasizes social and cultural influences on cognitive development, highlighting language's role in problem-solving and the importance of scaffolding and zone of proximal development.
Language Development 12-24 Months
Toddlers learn around 50 words by 18 months, with fast-mapping and over/underextension common; language exposure and rich environments support vocabulary growth.
Language Development 24-36 Months
Toddlers begin using 3-4 word statements, talk about past/future events, and may exhibit over-regularization; language development is fostered by language-rich environments and social interactions.
Secondary emotions
Emotions like shame, embarrassment, guilt that require social learning and develop mostly in the second year of life.
Emotion regulation
Strategies used to adjust emotional state to achieve goals, requiring effort and intentional strategies, increasing with language use, behavioral strategies, cultural rules, and sociomoral emotions.
Awareness of self
Emergence of self-recognition, awareness of self as distinct from others, gender identity formation between 18-30 months, influenced by cultural messages and gender stereotypes.
Cultural considerations about identity
Views of self shaped by culture, Western notions often individualistic, Indigenous understandings more relational, emphasizing connection to social relationships and the environment.
Attachment
Assessed in toddlers using 'strange situation,' with secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant, and disorganized-disoriented attachment styles, influenced by cultural variations in primary attachment figures.
Erikson
Toddlerhood conflict of Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt, successful resolution supported by suitable guidance and reasonable choices from parents.
Social world of the toddler
Broadening social world to include siblings, peers, and friends, varying father involvement across cultures, trend towards greater father involvement in more Western countries.
Autism
Characterized by lack of interest in social relations, abnormal language development, repetitive behavior, usually diagnosed during toddlerhood when social and language difficulties become apparent.
Brain and Body Growth
Optimal growth dependent on health and nutrition, brain development crucial for motor skills and cognitive functions.
Illness and Injury in Early Childhood
Developing countries face more disease-related deaths, while developed countries have fewer life-threatening illnesses but more minor illnesses.
Child Maltreatment
Includes abuse and neglect, with emotional abuse and neglect being common types, affecting children from low socioeconomic backgrounds.
Gross and Fine Motor Development
Continuation of skill development, boys often stronger, girls excel in balance, coordination, and handedness.
Piaget Theory of Mind
Preoperational stage (2-7 years) marked by symbolic thinking, pretend play, language development, and cognitive limitations.
Inability to Conserve
Children struggle with understanding that certain object characteristics remain constant despite changes in appearance, due to centration and irreversibility.
Classification
Preoperational children find hierarchical classification challenging, showing errors in understanding groups and quantities.
Egocentrism
Children struggle to differentiate their perspective from others', tested by tasks like the three mountains task.
Theory of Mind (Metacognition)
Ability to understand thinking processes in self and others, perspective-taking improves during preschool years.
Language Development
Vocabulary expands rapidly, children grasp grammatical rules through daily interactions, and can apply rules to new situations.
Emotional self-regulation
The ability to exercise control over one’s emotions, supported by frontal lobe development and awareness of strategies for managing emotions.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Developmental stages including Autonomy vs shame & doubt, Initiative vs Guilt, and Industry vs inferiority, influencing emotional and social growth.
Moral Development
Involves the emergence of sociomoral emotions, capacity for empathy, understanding of moral principles, and prosocial behavior.
Social Learning
Demonstrated through the Bobo doll experiment, where exposure to aggressive models led to imitative aggressive behavior in children.
Antisocial Behavior
Intentional negative actions causing harm, including instrumental aggression, hostile aggression, physical, verbal, and relational aggression.
Parenting Styles
Varied approaches like authoritative parenting, impacting children's outcomes and influenced by cultural context.
Peer Relationships
Social worlds expand in preschool years, with evolving conceptions of friendship and common gender segregation.
Early Childhood Education and Care
High-quality care enhances various skills, while low-quality care may lead to poorer socioemotional outcomes.
Play
Essential for learning skills and social rules, associated with the development of various skills, and crucial for self-initiative and intrinsic motivation to learn.
Types of Play
Include locomotor play, object play, social play, and sociodramatic play, each contributing to different aspects of development.
Evolutionary Perspectives
Highlight the significant milestones in human evolution and the impact of modern living on the connection to nature.
Increasingly Indoors
Discuss the shift towards spending more time indoors and the implications for children's development and outdoor activities.
Increasingly Sedentary
Focus on the decrease in physical activity and the rise in sedentary behaviors among children, along with the associated health concerns.
Screen Time Guidelines
Outline the recommended screen time limits for different age groups and the importance of balancing sedentary activities with physical play.
Findings from National Health Survey
Summarize the statistics on physical activity levels and screen time among Australian children and young people.
Changing Work Contexts
Explore the impact of changing work environments on children's schedules and activities.
Overscheduled
Discuss the phenomenon of overscheduling children and its potential negative effects on their well-being.
Safety Concerns (Stranger Danger)
Address the safety concerns related to children's outdoor activities and the concept of "stranger danger."
Push for Academics
Examine the increasing pressure for academic achievement and its influence on children's playtime and outdoor experiences.
Perception Learning Occurs Indoors
Emphasize the shift in perception towards learning primarily happening indoors and the implications for children's development.
Nature Deficit Disorder
Describes the human costs of alienation from nature, including diminished use of senses, attention difficulties, and higher rates of physical and emotional illnesses.
Vestibular System
Key to sensory integration, emotional regulation, attention, and physical development; requires frequent movement for health.
Proprioception
Understanding of limb positions, regulation of pressure/force, bodily awareness; strengthened through "heavy work" providing sensory stimulation.
Sensory Integration
Process of making sense of input from multiple sensory modalities as an integrated whole; crucial for perceptual development and noticing correlations between sensory inputs.
Myopia
Most common vision problem in middle childhood, influenced by time spent indoors; reduced by outdoor time and focusing into the distance.
Immune Function
Soil bacteria and immunity, M.vaccae "friendly bacteria" in soil, dirt increases serotonin and immune function.
Resilience
Ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development; focus on protecting young people from the damaging effects of stressful life conditions.
Free Play
Essential for children's social, emotional, and cognitive development; fosters skills like problem-solving, social interaction, and physical abilities.
Piaget
Inspired a vision of children as innately motivated explorers whose understanding develops through direct interaction with the environment; emphasized discovery learning and exploration.
Vygotsky
Cognitive development is socially mediated; make-believe play is a critical zone of proximal development enabling children to acquire new understandings and competencies.
Sensory Development
In middle childhood, hearing often improves while vision can decline due to myopia, impacting 1 in 4 children.
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