AP human Geography (AP HuG) Unit 7

African Cities Model

Harm deBlij of sub-Saharan Africa; Inner rings = high-income people- Near business and consumer services and public services like water, electricity, paved roads, and garbage pick up; Rings constantly added to periphery; Housing in outer rings often informal settlements; 3 CBDs; South Africa Cities- Western cities with elements of NA and European CBDs/Suburbs

Annexation

The process of legally adding land area to a city; Majority of residents in affected area need to vote in favor of this; Peripheral areas used to desire this because the city offered better services, now peripheral residents prefer to organize their own services instead of paying city taxes

Automobile Epoch

1920+; Transport Channel: Cars, trucks

Brownfields

A property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant

Business Services

Facilitate the activities of other businesses; 1/4 US jobs; Professional services, transportation services, and financial services

Census Tracts

What urban areas in the US are divided into; Contain approximately 5,000 residents and correspond, where possible, to neighborhood boundaries; US Census reports the number of nonwhites, median income of all families, and percentage of adults who finished high school

Central Business District (CBD)

Downtown- Best-known and most visually distinctive area of most cities; The ones of older cities are often situated along a body of water, a principal transportation route prior to the 20th century; 3-D Character: More space used below and above ground level than elsewhere in the urban area; Land uses commonly found elsewhere in the urban area are rare in the CBD because of intense competition for land

Central City (City)

An urban settlement that has been legal incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit known as a municipality

Central Place

A market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted from the surrounding area; Threshold and range determine which services will be available

Christaller's Central Place Theory

Explains the relative size and spacing of towns and cities as a function of people's shopping behavior; Many small settlements with small threshold/range services; Fewer large settlements, services with large thresholds and ranges; Walter Christaller-1933; Based on studies of southern Germany

City- High Density

Specialization- Play specific role to allow complex urban settlement to function smoothly; Encourages social groups to compete to occupy the same territory; Buildings built close together

City- Large Size

Only know a low percentage of the other residents; Most relationships contractual: You are paid wages via contract and pay others for goods and services; Different social relationships

Clustered Rural Settlement

An agricultural-based community in which a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings

Concentric Zone Model

A city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings; E.W. Burgess in 1923; The CBD is the most important aspect of the city; As the city grew, the inner zones encroached on outer zones and residents began to move further away from the CBD and were replaced by immigrants and lower income families

Consumer Services

Provide services to individual consumers who desire them and can afford to pay for them; 1/2 US jobs; Retail, health, education, leisure

Consumer Services in CBDs

Retailers with High Thresholds: Department stores, accessible to many people, less threshold = stores moving to suburban malls; Retailers with High Ranges: Specialists with customers who patronize them infrequently, less threshold = moving away, some stay for tourism; Retailers Serving CBD Workers: Office supplies, computer, clothing, shoe repair, increasing because more office workers in CBDs, shop during lunch hour

Density Gradient

The number of houses per unit of land diminishes as distance from the center city increases; Changes: Fewer people living in the center (Gap) and fewer differences in density within urban areas

Disamenity Zones

Not connected to city services- Unsafe locations (Cartels); Land uses noisy, polluting, or cater to lower-income residents

Dispersed Rural Settlement

Characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements

Edge Cities

The nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway

Enclosure Movement

In the UK (1750-1850), resulted in the consolidation of individually owned strips of land surrounding villages into large farms owned by single individuals; Government forced people to give up land- Moved urban; Same time as Industrial Revolution

European CBDs

Have more inhabitants than North American CBDs; Contain more day-to-day consumer services; Most prominent structures are public services- Churches, parks, etc; NA CBDs have more skyscrapers because these want historical preservation; Have higher rents because of more limited space

European Suburbs

Much of the newer housing in outer rings is high-rise apartments, not houses; Rich in center, near royal palace, and poor and factories on the outside; Most ethnic and racial minorities reside in suburbs

Filtering

The process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner-occupancy to rented apartments and ultimately to abandonment; Not good for a neighborhood to have a deteriorated house

Food Desert

An area that has a substantial amount of low-income residents and has poor access to a grocery store; Too far to walk (More than a mile); Not enough people with enough money to fund a grocery store

Fragmentation

Local governments include county, municipal, township, school district, and special district (Fire/police); Tiny communities trying to carve out control- or avoid sharing it- over their services, taxes, schools, public transportation, and housing; Problems and solutions with growth and decline of urban areas; "Too many cooks in the kitchen"

Galactic City Model

Harris 1960; Expands on Multiple Nuclei Model; Mini- Downtowns at key locations along transportation routes (Edge cities, like zones 3-8, economic areas, not necessarily its own city); Study of Detroit/Des Moines- Describes the spread of the city outwards to the suburbs, leaving a declining inner city; Little class differences in suburbs- One residential area; Surrounded by beltway- Highway/Interstate- Services off of exits; Business services grow as suburbs grow

Gentrification

Process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income, renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class, owner-occupied area; Single people and couples without kids who aren't concerned with the quality of inner-city schools are attracted; Called/criticized as subsidies for the middle class at the expense of those with low-income- Forced to more out because of high rents

Global Cities- Cultural Factors

Presence of renowned cultural institutions, influential media outlets, sports facilities, and educational institutions

Global Cities- Economic Factors

Number of headquarters for multinational corporations, financial institutions, and law firms that influence the global economy

Global Cities- Infrastructure Factors

A major international airport, healthcare facilities, and advanced communication systems

Global Cities- Political Factors

Hosting headquarters for international organizations and capitals of countries that play a leading role in international events

Global Cities- Transportation Factors

19th century: Railroad; 20th century: Motor vehicles and airplanes; Made it possible to deliver people, inputs, and products quickly; Modern transportation and communications enable industry to decentralize and reinforce primacy of global cities

Global City (World City)

Urban settlements that play an especially important role in global business services; Center of the flow of information and capital; Divided into alpha, beta, and gamma; New York City and London two dominant

Gravity Model

Predicts that the optimal location of a service is directly related to the number of people in the area and inversely related to the distance people must travel to access it

Hexagon in Central Place Theory

Not a circle because they create gaps and don't fit nicely without overlap; Not a square because sides need to be about equidistant from the center

How Suburban Areas are Segregated

Social classes (Sometimes race/ethinicity) and land uses

If No Rank-Size Distribution

Indicates that a country isn't sufficiently wealthy enough to justify the provision of goods and services to consumers throughout the country; Travel long distances for services

Informal Settlement

A residential area where housing has been built on land to which the occupants have no legal claim or has not been built to the city's standards for legal buildings; AKA Squatter Settlements; Few services because city and residents can't afford them; Stolen electricity and only transportation is walking

Lack of Manufacturing in the CBD

Need lots of land- More in suburbs; Cargo ships can't maneuver CBD harbors; Warehouses in CBDs replaced with offices, apartments, shops, etc. = CBD waterfronts now tourist attractions

Lack of Residents in the CBD

Pulled to suburbs with bigger homes and modern schools; Pushed by high rents and the crime, poverty, and pollution of CBD life; In 21st century, CBD population rising, especially for people without kids- attracted by the amenities and not worried about schools

Large Settlements

Have large thresholds, ranges, and market areas; MDCs (Small--->Big: Hamlet, village, town, city)

Latin American Cities Model

Ernest Griffin and Larry Ford of Latin America; Wealthy people push out from center in a well-defined elite residential sector- Forms on either side of a spine that contains offices, shops, etc- Water and electricity more available; Wealthy and middle-class avoid living near sectors of "disamenity"; Two-Part CBD- Traditional market and modern high-rise; Zone of Maturity- Middle-class housing; Zone of In Situ Accretion- High population density of modest housing; Periphery-Periferico- High density shanty towns of extreme poverty and no services

Market Area/Hinterland

The area surrounding a service from which customers are attracted; Nodal region

Megacities

A city that has 10 million people or more

Megalopolis

A Greek word meaning "Great City"; MSAs in NE US form one continuous urban complex, extending from north of Boston to south of Washington, DC (Called Boswash Corridor); Chain of connected cities

Middle Eastern and Islamic Cities Model

Influenced by spread of Islam; Central mosque surrounded by public services (Schools, Soup Kitchens) and citadel (Fort); Residential areas reflect ethnicities/tribes/branches of Islam and central courtyards rather than individual yards

Multiple Nuclei Model

A city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve; C.D. Harris and E.L. Ullman in 1945; Some activities attracted to particular nodes, whereas others try to avoid them; Edge Cities- Nodes of consumer and business services; Originated as suburban residences for central city workers, then malls came in, now business services; CBD is not the sole force in creating land-use patterns; Shows the shift from manufacturing cities to post-industrial cities; Economic activities tend to cluster together and rent-paying ability/land price values vary throughout the city

New Urbanism

Type of urban planning to create walkable blocks and streets, housing, and shopping in close proximity (Mixed Land Use), and accessible public spaces (Greenbelts); Obstacles: Existing zoning system, Public opinion

Offshore Centers

Taxes- Typically low or nonexistent, companies incorporated have tax free status, regardless of nationality; Privacy- Back secrecy laws help individuals and businesses evade disclosure in home countries, can protect assets from lawsuits if accused of malpractice by storing them in off-shore centers

Peripheral Model

An urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and service nodes or nuclei tied together by a beltway or ring road

Pre-Colonial and Colonial Cities

"Old Quarters" (Pre-colonial city): Two separate and distinct nodes; Surrounding a center with marketplace; Narrow, winding streets, little open space, and cramped residences; "European District" (Colonial addition): Location for colonial services (Administration, military, etc) Wider streets and public squares, larger houses surrounded by gardens, and lower density

Primate City

The country's largest city in primate city rule

Primate City Rule

The largest settlement has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement; Unitary governments common, centralized services hub for ESP (Not eN)

Public Services

Provide security and protection for citizens and businesses; 10% US jobs

Public Services in CBDs

City hall, courts, county and state agencies, libraries are historically downtown; Sport facilities and convention centers stimulate more business

Range

The maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service; Humans: Go only a short distance for everyday consumer services and long distance for other services, go to the nearest available service, and think of distance in terms of time, not miles

Rank-Size Rule

The country's nth-largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement; Developed countries; Federal governments common, variety of services, more distributed wealth

Redlining

A process by which financial institutions draw red-colored lines on a map and refuse to lend money for people to purchase or improve property within the lines; Families who try to fix up houses in the area have difficulty borrowing money

Sail-Wagon Epoch

1790-1830; Transport Channel: Dirt roads, rivers, oceans

Sector Model

A city develops in a series of sectors; Certain areas of the city are more attractive for various activities, originally because of environmental or chance; As a city grows, activities expand outward in a wedge, or sector, from the center; Homer Hoyt in 1939; Most expensive housing built at outer edge; Recasting of concentric zone model to reflect railroads and transportation patterns; The CBD is the most important aspect of the city; Low income households are found in close proximity to railroad lines & other major transportation routes; Land rent (for commercial, residential, industrial) could remain consistent all the way from the CBD to the city's outer edge

Slow-Growth Cities

Urban communities where the planners have put into place smart growth initiatives to decrease the rate at which the city grows horizontally to avoid the adverse affects of sprawl

Smart Growth

Legislation and regulations to limit suburban growth and preserve farmland; MD: Discourages the state from funding new highways and other projects that would extend suburban sprawl and destroy farmland; OR & TN: Defined growth boundaries that new developments can occur in

Southeast Asian Cities Model

T.G. McGee of SE Asia; Several Nodes of squatter settlements and "alien" zones where foreigners (Often Chinese) live and work; CBD functions dispersed to several nodes; Complex mix of ethnic groups (Ex. Apartheid); Old colonial port zone surrounds the commercial district (Export-Oriented), similar to NA CBDs; No formal business zone, separate clusters

Sprawl

The development of suburbs at relatively low density and at locations that are not contiguous to the existing built-up area

Steamboat-Iron Horse Epoch

1830-1870; Transport Channel: Water and land, steam wagon, roadways, railroads

Steel Rail Epoch

1870-1920; Transport Channel: Land, steam and electricity

Suburb

A residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city; Existed on a small scale since ancient times-Residential areas located outside walls surrounding a city; More extensive suburbs appeared in 19th century, as cities grew in Industrial Rev

Sustainable Development

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

Threshold

The minimum number of people needed to support the service

Underclass

Group in society prevented from participating in the material benefits of a more developed society because of a variety of social and economic hardships

Urban Area

Consists of a central city and its surrounding built-up suburbs

Urban Cluster

An urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants

Urbanization

The process by which the population of urban settlements grows; Dimensions: Rise in percentage of people living in urban settlements, Rise in number of people living in urban settlements

Urbanized Area

An urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants

Walkable Mixed-Use Commercial and Residential Areas

Many urban areas are too reliant on automobiles for transportation, which results in obesity due to inactivity, asthma from car exhaust, and car crashes; Portland, Oregon keeps an urban growth boundary, skinny streets program, invested in bicycling and walking instead of roads

Why Inner-City Neighborhoods are Attractive

Houses larger yet less expensive than suburban houses; Houses possess attractive architectural details; Less commute for downtown workers; Neighborhoods near theaters, bars, restaurants, stadiums, etc

Wirth's Definition of a City

Large size, high population density, socially heterogeneous people

Zoning Ordinance

A law that limits the permitted uses of land and maximum density of development in a community; Make it difficult for low-income families to find affordable housing

African Cities Model

Harm deBlij of sub-Saharan Africa; Inner rings = high-income people- Near business and consumer services and public services like water, electricity, paved roads, and garbage pick up; Rings constantly added to periphery; Housing in outer rings often informal settlements; 3 CBDs; South Africa Cities- Western cities with elements of NA and European CBDs/Suburbs

Annexation

The process of legally adding land area to a city; Majority of residents in affected area need to vote in favor of this; Peripheral areas used to desire this because the city offered better services, now peripheral residents prefer to organize their own services instead of paying city taxes

Automobile Epoch

1920+; Transport Channel: Cars, trucks

Brownfields

A property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant

Business Services

Facilitate the activities of other businesses; 1/4 US jobs; Professional services, transportation services, and financial services

Census Tracts

What urban areas in the US are divided into; Contain approximately 5,000 residents and correspond, where possible, to neighborhood boundaries; US Census reports the number of nonwhites, median income of all families, and percentage of adults who finished high school

Central Business District (CBD)

Downtown- Best-known and most visually distinctive area of most cities; The ones of older cities are often situated along a body of water, a principal transportation route prior to the 20th century; 3-D Character: More space used below and above ground level than elsewhere in the urban area; Land uses commonly found elsewhere in the urban area are rare in the CBD because of intense competition for land

Central City (City)

An urban settlement that has been legal incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit known as a municipality

Central Place

A market center for the exchange of goods and services by people attracted from the surrounding area; Threshold and range determine which services will be available

Christaller's Central Place Theory

Explains the relative size and spacing of towns and cities as a function of people's shopping behavior; Many small settlements with small threshold/range services; Fewer large settlements, services with large thresholds and ranges; Walter Christaller-1933; Based on studies of southern Germany

City- High Density

Specialization- Play specific role to allow complex urban settlement to function smoothly; Encourages social groups to compete to occupy the same territory; Buildings built close together

City- Large Size

Only know a low percentage of the other residents; Most relationships contractual: You are paid wages via contract and pay others for goods and services; Different social relationships

Clustered Rural Settlement

An agricultural-based community in which a number of families live in close proximity to each other, with fields surrounding the collection of houses and farm buildings

Concentric Zone Model

A city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings; E.W. Burgess in 1923; The CBD is the most important aspect of the city; As the city grew, the inner zones encroached on outer zones and residents began to move further away from the CBD and were replaced by immigrants and lower income families

Consumer Services

Provide services to individual consumers who desire them and can afford to pay for them; 1/2 US jobs; Retail, health, education, leisure

Consumer Services in CBDs

Retailers with High Thresholds: Department stores, accessible to many people, less threshold = stores moving to suburban malls; Retailers with High Ranges: Specialists with customers who patronize them infrequently, less threshold = moving away, some stay for tourism; Retailers Serving CBD Workers: Office supplies, computer, clothing, shoe repair, increasing because more office workers in CBDs, shop during lunch hour

Density Gradient

The number of houses per unit of land diminishes as distance from the center city increases; Changes: Fewer people living in the center (Gap) and fewer differences in density within urban areas

Disamenity Zones

Not connected to city services- Unsafe locations (Cartels); Land uses noisy, polluting, or cater to lower-income residents

Dispersed Rural Settlement

Characterized by farmers living on individual farms isolated from neighbors rather than alongside other farmers in settlements

Edge Cities

The nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway

Enclosure Movement

In the UK (1750-1850), resulted in the consolidation of individually owned strips of land surrounding villages into large farms owned by single individuals; Government forced people to give up land- Moved urban; Same time as Industrial Revolution