Psych Set 3

Learning

A relatively permanent change in knowledge or behavior that results from experience.

Non-associative learning

Learning that involves a change in the magnitude of response to a stimulus

Habituation

The tendency to become familiar with a stimulus due to repeated exposure

Associative learning

Learning that involves forming associations between stimuli or between behavior and consequences.

Classical conditioning

Learning of an association between two stimuli

Operant conditioning

Learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences; associated with B.F. Skinner.

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

An unlearned

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus after repeated pairings with the US.

Acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning during which an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus is formed.

Higher-order conditioning

A process where a CS is paired with a new neutral stimulus

Extinction (classical conditioning)

The diminishing of a CR when the CS is presented without the US repeatedly.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause following extinction.

Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

Discrimination (classical conditioning)

The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.

Little Albert experiment

A study by Watson and Rayner showing classical conditioning of a fear response in a child.

Taste aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular food or taste

Breaking habits

Classical conditioning can be used to weaken or replace unwanted behaviors.

Advertising (classical conditioning)

Pairing products with positive stimuli to evoke a conditioned emotional response.

Reinforcement

Any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a prior response.

Positive reinforcement

Increases behavior by presenting a pleasurable stimulus after the response.

Negative reinforcement

Increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus.

Punishment

Any stimulus that decreases the likelihood of a prior response.

Positive punishment

Weakens behavior by presenting an aversive stimulus.

Negative punishment

Weakens behavior by removing a pleasurable stimulus.

Applications of operant conditioning

Includes school

Superstitious behavior

Behavior repeated due to perceived reinforcement

Learned helplessness

A condition where a person or animal learns to feel helpless after repeated failures

Observational learning

Learning by observing and imitating others; demonstrated in Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment.

Bandura’s Bobo doll

An experiment showing that children imitate aggressive behavior observed in adults.

Learning styles debate

The theory that individuals learn best through visual

Information-processing model

A model of memory involving sensory memory

Sensory memory

Brief storage of sensory information lasting only a fraction of a second.

Short-term memory (STM)

Temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a short time.

Capacity of STM

Typically 7±2 items; can be expanded using chunking.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to increase memory capacity.

Encoding in long-term memory

The process of transferring information into long-term storage through deep or shallow processing.

Deep processing

Encoding based on meaning

Shallow processing

Encoding based on surface features

Maintenance rehearsal

Repetition of information to keep it in STM; not effective for long-term retention.

Elaborative rehearsal

Encoding by relating new information to existing knowledge; enhances long-term memory.

Organization (memory)

Structuring information meaningfully improves memory retention.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed practice to yield better long-term retention than massed practice.

Massed practice

Cramming information in a short time; less effective.

Distributed practice

Spacing out study sessions; more effective for long-term retention.

Generation effect

Memory is improved when you generate information yourself rather than passively reading it.

Self-reference effect

Information is better remembered when it is related to oneself.

Effective note-taking

Organizing

Forgetting curve

Memory declines rapidly without rehearsal

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Retrieval

The process of bringing information from long-term memory into consciousness.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information (e.g.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues (e.g.

Context-dependent memory

Improved recall when the context present at encoding and retrieval is the same.

State-dependent memory

Memory retrieval is easier when in the same internal state as during encoding.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences that match one’s current mood.

Retrograde amnesia

Inability to recall past memories prior to an injury or trauma.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia.

Implicit memory in amnesiacs

Even with amnesia

Memory as a reconstructive process

Memory is not a perfect record but is reconstructed using cues and prior knowledge.

Misinformation effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event; studied by Elizabeth Loftus.

Elizabeth Loftus

Researcher who demonstrated the malleability of memory and the misinformation effect.

Eyewitness testimony

Often inaccurate due to memory distortions and suggestibility.

False memories

Recollections of events that never occurred