A&P EXAM 1 (CH 1, 4, & 5)

List the common characteristics shared by all living things

1. Composed of cells

2. Complex structural arrangement

3. Detect & respond to stimuli

4. Maintain a relatively stable internal environment

5. Organisms grow (increase in size) & develop (natural progression in physical maturation)

6. Offspring r produced by reproduction

7. Hv metabolism - all essential processes occurring in cells

   Anabolic - building up

   Catabolic - breaking down

Describe the basic processes in humans & other animals

1. Respiration - O2 required for chemical processes obtained from atmosphere & delivered to cardiovascular system, CO2 removed by cardiovascular system

2. Digestion - mechanical & chemical process to convert ingested food into simple absorbable substances

3. Circulation: internal movement & distribution of O2 wastes, & digestion products

4. Excretion: undigested food & wastes of metabolism eliminated from body

What r the differences between gross anatomy & macroscopic anatomy?

Gross anatomy: you can see large structures & features usually visible w/ unaided eye

Microscopic anatomy: it is the study of structures that cannot be seen w/ out magnification (need microscope)

Explain the link between anatomy & physiology

Physiology: study of function & how organisms perform vital functions. complex & more difficult to examine than anatomical structures. Focuses on functional properties

Name the simplest lvl of organization that includes the smallest living units in the body

1. Cellular lvl = the simplest lvl of organization

2. Cells = the smallest living units in the body

   Functions depend on organelles composed of molecules

   Each organelle has a specific function

   Ex: a mitochondrion provides energy for ❤ muscle cell contraction

Define organ

Composed of 2 or more tissues working tg to perform specific functions

Ex: layers of cardiac muscle tissue along w/ connective tissue from the heart

Name & define the unit used to measure cell size

Cells in the human body

• contains trillions of cells

• Only an estimated 200 different types of cells

• measured in micrometers

• vary greatly in size

List the 3 basic principles of the cell theory

1. Cells r the structural building blocks of all plants & animals

2. Cells r produced by the divisions of pre-existing cells

3. Cells r the smallest structural units that perform all vital functions

Describe the general roles of the diff types of 💪 tissue

1. Skeletal 💪 tissue

   • usually attached to the skeleton

   • moves or stabilizes position of skeleton or internal organs

2. Cardiac 💪 tissue

   • only in

   • propels 🩸 thru 🩸 vessels

3. Smooth 💪 tissue

   • In 🩸 vessel walls, within glands, along respiratory, circulatory, digestive, & reproductive tracts

   • moves fluids & solids along digestive tract

   • regulates diameter of small arteries, among other functions

Identify the 4 primary tissue types & explain the functions of each

1. Epithelial tissue

   • most common

   • forms a barrier w/ specific properties

   • covers every exposed body surface

   • lines digestive, respiratory, reproductive, & urinary tracts

   • surrounds internal cavities (ex: chest cavity)

   • lines inner surfaces of 🩸 vessels & 🫀

   • produces glandular secretions

2. Connective tissue

   • diverse in appearance but all forms contain cells surrounded by ECM

   • matrix has ➡ protein fibers & ground substance

   • amount & consistency of matrix varies by the particular connective tissue type

   • 🩸 - watery matrix

   • 🦴 - crystallized matrix w/ little ground substance

   • fills internal spaces

   • provides structural support

   • stores energy

3. 💪 tissue

   • has the ability to contract forcefully (to produce movement)

   • includes skeletal, cardiac, & smooth muscle

   • major functions

     • skeletal movement

     • soft tissue support

     • maintenance of 🩸 flow

     • movement of materials internally

     • stabilization of body temp

4. Nervous tissue

   • conducts electrical impulses

   • carries info

Which 2 organ systems are involved w/ circulation within the body?

Cardiovascular & Lymphatic

Why is homeostatis regulation important to an organism?

The organism is able to physiologically adjust itself to preserve homeostasis in variable environments

Describe the 3 parts necessary for homeostatic regulation

1. Receptor (sensor)

   • sensitive to environmental change

2. Control center (integration center)

   • processes info from the receptor & sends out commands

3. Effector

   • responds to commands opposing stimulus

Explain the function of negative feedback systems, give an example of homeostatic regulation by negative feedback in the body

• Effector opposes or negates the original stimulus

• Minimizes change

• Primary mechanism of homeostatic regulation in the body

• Dynamic process

  • set point varies w/ varying environments & activity lvls

  • Ex: body temp

Why is postiive feedback helpful in 🩸 clotting but unsuitable for regulating body temp?

It usually occurs in dangerous responses & produces a response that enchances the original change

Describe a person in the anatomical position

• 🧍 up

• 👐 at the side

• 🤲 facing forward

• 🦶🦶 together & facing forward

• 👀 facing forward

• Lying down in anatomical position

• Supine when face up

• Prone when face down

Contrast the descriptions used by clinicians & anatomists when referring to the positions of injuries of internal organs of the abdomen & pelvis

The abdominopelvic quadrants is used by clinicians to describe locations of patient pains, aches, or injuries, whereas the abdominopelvic regions is used by anatomists to describe precise location & orientation of internal organs

What is the purpose of anatomical terms?

To find exactly which body part is in crucial pain

In the anatomical position, describe an anterior view & a posterior view

1. Anterior - facing the front

2. Posterior - facing the back

What type of section would separate - the 2 👁👁, the 👃 & the 2👂, the neck & navel?

1. 2 👁👁 - sagittal

2. the 👃 & the 2 👂 - frontal

3. the neck & navel - transverse

What is the purpose of directional & sectional terms?

• it is sometimes the only way to show the relationship between parts of a 3-dimensional body

• medical imaging techniques utilize sectional views

• used for visualization purposes

• important to consider when looking at 🔬 slides & CT or MRI scans

• views change thru out structure

Describe 2 distinctive features & 2 essential functions of true body cavities

1. 2 distinctive features

   • from common embryological origin

   • covered by serous membrane

2. 2 essential functions

   • protect organs from shocks & impacts

   • permit changes in sizes & shape of organs

Identify the body cavities of the trunk

1. Thoracic cavity

   • everything deep to the chest

2. Abdominopelvic cavity

   • all structures deep to abdominal & pelvic walls

Give the term for “the study of tissues”

Histology

What is a tissue?

Cells working together

How do early microscopes compare w/ modern microscopes?

Early magnification lvls of an early 🔬 lvls 10-20 times the actual size

Differentiate among LM (light), TEM (transmission electron), and SEM (scanning electron).

1. LM

   • detects visible light thru thin section of tissue

   • 2 lenses magnify specimen

   • objective lens located on revolving nosepiece

   • ocular lens located in the eye piece

   • total magnification (calculated by multiplying the 2 lens power (obj x ocu)

   • Resolution

     • ability to distinguish between 2 separate points

     • wavelength of light limtis resolution on light 🔬 to about 200 nm

2. TEM

   • transmits thru specimen

   • uses 🧲s to direct beam of electron’s thru the surface of a very thin object onto a photographic plate

   • wavelength of electron beam 0.00001 of white light

   • maximum resolution 0.2 nm

3. SEM

   • uses electrons but not by sending them thru a specimen

   • specimen coated w/ electron dense material

   • electron beams are focused on the specimen

   • reflections of electrons bouncing off object produce 3 3-dimensional image of the surface

   • can view surface features only

   • maximum resolution of about 10 nm

List 4 essential functions of epithelial tissue

• Provide physical protection

protect surfaces from abrasion, dehydration, or destruction by chemical or biological agents

• Control permeability

  most epithelia are capable of selective absorption or secretion

  epithelial barrier can be modified in response to stimuli (ex: calluses)

• Provide sensation

  specialized epithelial cells, detect changes in environment (ex: touch receptors)

• Neuroepithelium

sensory epithelium found in special sense organs

produce specialized secretions

• glandular epithelial cells produce secretions

Summarize the classification of an epithelium based on cell shape & # of cell layers

3 basic shapes

1. Squamous

   • thin and flat

2. Cuboidal

   • cube-shaped

   • like little boxes 📦

3. Columnar

   • taller than they are wide

   • slender rectangles

4. Epithelial cell layers

   • single layer

     • simple epithelium

   • several layers of cells

     • stratified epithelium

     • found in areas that need protection from abrasion or chemical stress

       ex: surface of skin, lining of 👄

Identify the various types of epithelial intercellular connections

1. Hemidesmosomes

   • attach deepest epithelial cells to basement membrane

2. Tight junctions

   • interlocking membrane proteins bind adjacent plasma membranes together

   • prevent passage of 💧 & solutes between cells

   • isolate basolateral surfaces & deeper tissues from contents in lumen

   • found in intestinal tract

3. Adhesion belts

   • continuous band of membrane proteins

   • strengthens apical region of cells

     • reinforces tight junctions

   • dense proteins attached to microfilaments of the terminal web (part of cytoskeleton)

   • belts encircle cells & bind to adjacent cells

4. Gap junctions

   • held together by interlocking transmembrane proteins (connexons)

   • assist chemical communication to help coordinate functions such as secretion or beating cilia

   • also found in cardiac 💪 & smooth 💪 muscle tissue to coordinate contraction

5. Desmosomes

   • provide firm attachments by interlocking adjacent cells’ cytoskeletons

   • opposing plasma membranes locked together by cell adhesion molecules

     • thin layer of proteoglycans may also bond

     • contain polysaccharide, notably hyaluronic acid

   • very strong; resist stretching & twisting

   • found in superficial layers of skin

What is the functional significance of gap junctions?

They assist chemical communication to help coordinate functions such as secretion or beating cilia

How do epithelial tissue obtain needed nutrients?

They require attachment to underlying connective tissue for nourishment from 🩸 vessels there

What 2 types of tissue contribute to the formation & maintenance of the basement membrane?

Epithelial & connective

What do mesothelium & an endothelium have in common?

Both are simple squamous epithelium

Why do the pharynx, esophagus, anus, & vagina have a similar epithelial organization?

They have many layers of cells, superficial layers are flattened, & are all stratified squamous epithelium

What properties are common to keratinized epithelia?

• superficial layers packed w’ keratin

• tough & 💧 resistant

• resists both mechanical stress & dehydration

• found on surface of skin, hair, & in nails

Describe the appearance of simple cuboidal epithelial cells in sectional view

Cells appear cube shaped

Identify the epithelium that lines the urinary bladder, & describe its unusual functional characteristics

Transitional epithelium = unusual stratified epithelium that can stretch & recoil w/ out damage

Describe the changes in appearance of the transitional epithelium lining the urinary bladder as stretching occurs

• Relaxed (empty bladder) - superficial cells cuboidal

• Stretched (full bladder) - superficial cells flattened

What functions are associated w/ a simple cuboidal epithelium & a transitional epithelium?

1. SCE:

   • functions in secretion & absorption

   • lines exocrine glands & ducts

   • lines part of kidney tubules & thyroid gland

2. TE:

   • it changes appearance (can stretch & recoil w/ out damage)

Describe the appearance of simple columnar epithelial cells in a sectional view

Cells appear rectangular

Explain why a pseudostratified columnar epithelium is not truly stratified

It has varying shapes & functions

Describe the structures found on the surfaces of simple columnar & pseudostratified columnar epithelia

1. SC: microvilli (absorption) or cilia (movement) on apical surface

2. PC: usually has cilia

Describe the 2 primary types of glands

1. Endocrine glands

   • release secretions into interstitial fluid

2. Exocrine glands

   • release secretions into ducts onto epithelial surface

By what 3 methods do various secretory cells of exocrine glands release their secretions?

1. Merocrine

   • product released from secretory vesicles by exocytosis

   • most common mode of secretion

     • ex: salivary gland secretion

2. Mucin

   • merocrine secretion that mixes w/ 💧 to form mucus

3. Apocrine

   • apical cytoplasm packed w/ secretory vesicles

   • cell releases cytoplasm as well as secretory product

     • ex: mammary gland secretion (combo of merocrine & apocrine)

4. Holocrine

   • destroys gland cell

   • entire cell bursts, releasing secretions & killing cell

   • destroyed cells replaced by stem cell division

     • ex: sebaceous glands

What characteristics are used to describe multicellular glands?

• Based on duct structure

  • simple (single duct that does not ➗)

  • compound (duct ➗’s 1 or more times)

• Based on the shape of the secretory area

• Tubular (glandular cells form tubes)

• Alveolar or acinar (glandular cells form sacs)

• Tubuloalveolar (glandular cells forms tubes & sacs)

Describe the simplest type of multicellular exocrine gland

Simple tubular

Identify the 3 basic components of connective tissue

1. Specialized cells

2. Extracellular protein fibers

3. Fluid called ground substance

Summarize the functions of connective tissue

• establish a structural framework for the body

• transport fluids & dissolved materials

• protect delicate organs

• support, surround, & interconnect other types of tissue

• store energy, especially in the form of triglyceride

• defend the body from invading microorganisms

Distinguish among connective tissue proper, fluid connective tissues, & supporting connective tissues

1. Connective tissue proper

   • contains many types of cells

   • extracellular fibers in syrupy ground substance

     • loose (fibers create loose, open framework)

     • dense (fibers densely packed)

2. Fluid connective tissue

   • distinctive group of cells

   • 💧y matrix

     • 🩸 (within cardio)

     • lymph (within lymphatic)

3. Supporting connective tissue

   • less diverse cell population

   • more densely packed matrix

     • cartilage (solid, rubbery matrix)

     • 🦴 (solid, crystalline matrix)

Identify the types of cells found in connective tissue proper

1. Fixed cells

   • Fibroblasts (synthesize extracellular fibers)

   • Adipocytes (store lipid reserves)

   • Fibrocytes (differentiate from fibroblasts & maintain extracellular fibers)

2. Wandering cells (move thru out tissue; function in defense and repair)

   • plasma cells (immune cells producing antibodies)

   • free macrophages (engulf debris & pathogens)

   • mesenchymal cells (stem cells that aid tissue repair)

   • neutrophils & eosinophils (phagocytic 🩸 cells)

   • lymphocytes (immune system cells)

Describe the roles of fibroblasts in connective tissue

It synthesizes extracellular fibers

Which type of loose connective tissue contains primarily lipids?

Adipose

What term means the fibrous supporting network formed of reticular fibers

Stroma

What types of phagocytic cells r present in connective tissue proper?

Neutrophils & eosinophils

What makes a connective tissue “loose” or “dense”?

The amount of volume or fibers

Which connective tissue fiber is characteristic of the cartilage supporting the ear?

Elastic cartilage

Describe the 2 layers making up the perichondrium

1. outer layer of dense irregular connective tissue

   • functions —> mechanical support, protection, attachment

2. inner cellular layer

   • where cartilage growth & maintenance occurs

Contrast appositional & interstitial growth of cartilage

1. Appositional growth (at cartilage surface)

   • chondroblasts ➗ in cellular layer of perichondrium

   • chondroblasts secrete new matrix

   • once surrounded by matrix, chondroblasts mature into chondrocytes

2. Interstitial growth (within cartilage)

   • chondrocytes ➗ within a lacuna

   • daughter cells secrete additional matrix & move apart

   • both types of cartilage growth occur during development

   • normally no growth & repair in adults

   • w/ slight damage or w/ hormonal stimulation some appositional growth possible

Describe bone matrix

2/3 of matrix is Ca (calcium) salts

• mostly Ca phosphate

• some Ca carbonate

What are mature bone cells in lacunae called?

Osteocytes

What is the functional unit of compact 🦴?

Osteon

Distinguish between the 2 types of supporting connective tissues w/ respect to their characteristic fibers

1. Cartilage characteristics

   • Cells: chondrocytes in lacunae

   • Ground substance: chondroitin sulfate (in proteoglycan) & 💧

   • Fibers: collagen, elastic, & reticular fibers in varying proportions

   • Vascularity: no internal 🩸 vessels

   • Covering: perichondrium (2 layers)

   • Strength: limited, bends easily, but hard to break

2. 🦴 characteristics

   • Cells: osteocytes in lacuna

   • Ground substance: a small volume of liquid surrounding insoluble crystals of Ca salts

   • Fibers: collagen fibers predominate

   • Vascularity: extensive 🩸 vessels

   • Covering: periosteum (2 layers)

   • Strength: resists distortion until breaking point

Which cavities in the body r lined by serous membranes?

Pleural cavity, pericardium, & peritoneum

Name the 4 types of membranes found in the body

1. Mucous

2. Serous

3. Cutaneous

4. Synovial

Name the 3 layers of fascia & their types of connective tissue

1. Superficial fascia

   • under skin

   • consists of areolar & adipose tissue

2. Deep fascia

   • continuous w/ capsules, ligaments, & other connective tissue structures

   • consists of dense irregular connective tissue

   • forms strong, fibrous internal framework

3. Subserous fascia

   • between serous membranes & deep fascia

   • consists entirely of areolar tissue

Which of the 4 tissue membranes is relatively waterproof & usually dry?

Cutaneous membrane

Which of the 4 tissue types has the highest body percentage weight and the lowest?

1. Highest = CT

2. Lowest = NT

Which type of 💪 tissue regulates 🩸 vessel diameter?

Smooth 💪

Distinguish between neurons & neuroglia

Neurons

• transfer info around body & perform info processing

• very in size and shape

  • longest cells in body r neurons (up to 1 m)

Neuroglia

• several diff structural types w/ associated functions

  • maintain physical structure of NT

  • repair NT framework after injury

  • perform phagocytosis

  • provide nutrients to neurons

  • regulate the composition of the interstitial fluid surrounding neurons

Organs are made up of different tissues. What tissues are found in skeletal muscles?

Skeletal muscle tissue

Identify the 2 processes in the response to tissue injury

1. Inflammation

2. Regeneration

What are the 4 indications of inflammation that occur following an injury?

1. Swelling

2. Redness

3. Warmth

4. Pain

Why can inflammation occur in any organ in the body?

It occurs in connective tissue (all organs have connective tissue)

Compare thin skin w/ thick skin

Thin skin

• covers most of body surface

• contains 4 strata (layers)

Thick skin

• found on palms of hands & soles of feet

• contains 5 strata (layers)

Identify the 5 layers of the epidermis (from superficial to deep)

1. Stratum basal

   • attached to basement membrane by hemidesmosomes

   • most cells here r basal cells, stem cells that ➗ to replace more superficial keratinocytes

   • merkel cells that respond to touch r also found here

2. Stratum spinosum (“spiny layer”)

   • composed of 8-10 layers of keratinocytes bound together by desmosomes

     • only looks spiny when on a prepared slide

     • contains dendritic (langerhans) cells

     • part of immune response defending against microorganisms & superficial skin cancers

3. Stratum granulosum (“grainy layer”)

   • composed of 3-5 layers of keratinocytes

   • most cells have stopped dividing & started producing keratin & keratohyalin

   • cells grow thinner & flatter

   • cell membranes thicken & become less permeable

4. Stratum lucidum (“clear layer”)

   • found only in thick skin

   • separates stratum corneum from underlying layers

   • flattened, densely packed dead cells filled w/ keratin & keratohyalin

5. Stratum corneum (cornu, horn)

   • outermost, protective region w/ 15-30 layers of keratinized cells (filled w/ keratin)

   • dead cells still tightly connected by desmosomes

   • 💧 resistant, not waterproof

     • lose 💧 thru insensible perspiration (unable to see or feel) & sensible perspiration (sweat)

Name the 2 pigments contained in the epidermis

1. Carotene

2. Melanin

Why is basal cell carcinoma considered less dangerous than malignant melanoma?

It does not metastasize (spread) & most people live

Describe the layers of the dermis

1. Papillary layer

   • named for dermal papillae in this region

   • composed of areolar tissue

   • contains capillaries, lymphatic vessels, & sensory neurons

2. Reticular layer

   • interwoven meshwork of dense, irregular connective tissue w/ collagen & elastic fibers

   • contains 🩸 vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerve fibers, & accessory organs (hair follicles, sweat glands)

3. Subcutaneous layer (not part of skin)

   • separates skin from deeper structures

   • dominated by adipose tissue

     • important energy storage site

Distinguish among a 1st degree, 2nd degree, & a 3rd degree burn

Partial-thickness burns

• First-degree burn

  • only the surface of the epidermis affected

  • ex: most sunburns

    • skin redness (erythema) results from inflammation

• Second-degree burn

  • entire epidermis & maybe some of dermis damaged

  • accessory structures not affected

  • blistering, pain, & swelling occur

    • infection can develop from ruptured blisters

  • healing takes 1-2 weeks

Full-thickness burns

• Third-degree burns

  • destroys epidermis, dermis, & damage extends into subcutaneous layer

  • less painful than 2nd-degree burns

  • extensive burns of this type cannot repair themselves

    • skin grafting usually necessary

Which type of burn usually requires skin grafting? Why?

1. Third degree burn

2. Why? - because these type of burns cannot fix themselves, so a skin graft is needed

Describe the 3 types of skin grafts. Which one is best? Why?

1. - Autograft - patient’s own undamaged skin

   • best choice if possible; no rejection by immune system

   • Allograft - frozen skin from a cadaver (dead body)

   • Xenograft - animal skin

2. Autograft is the best skin graft

3. Why? - because it does not reject the immune system

What are epidermal derivatives?

Accessory structures of the integumentary system

Which exocrine glands r in the integument?

Sweat glands & sebaceous glands

Describe a typical strand of hair

• found almost everywhere on the body

  • except palms of 🙌, sides & soles of 🦶🦶, sides of 👆’s & toes, 💋, & parts of external genitalia

  • each hair produced by a hair follicle

  • complex structure composed of epithelial & connective tissue that forms a single hair

What happens when an arrector pili muscle contracts?

It pulls the hair erect

Describe the 4 phases of the hair growth cycle

1. Active phase

   • lasts 2-5 years

   • hair grows at rate of 0.33 mm/day

2. Resting phase

   • hair loses attachment to follicle

   • becomes club hair

   • club hair is shed when follicle is reactivated

   • new hair formation begins

3. Regression & transition

4. Follicle reactivation & growth of replacement hair

   Steps in order ——→ Active phase, regression & transition, resting phase, & follicle reactivation & growth of replacement hair

Why does hair turn white or gray with age?

Because of decreased melanocyte activity