America Theme 3

What is popular culture?

Forms of music, drama or other artistic expressions that have a large following

What was the first proper film?

Birth of a Nation which is a film that glorifies the KKK

How many films were produced in the 20s and 30s?

1000 a year

What event happened with cinema in 1913?

The Regent in New York held 3000 people in seats that cost 10, 15 and 25 cents.
This made them thousands of pounds a week

What happened with cinema in 1917?

Movies became the biggest entertainment media in the USA

What happened with cinema in the 20s generally?

Movies boomed especially after the war because it gave the public an evening out

What happened with cinema in 1927?

The first 'talkie' The Jazz Singer was shown which shook up the movie industry

What happened with cinema in the 30s generally?

Most cinemas changed their feature movie at least twice a week.
There was also a B movie, a short cartoon, trailers and newsreels

What happened with cinema in the late 30s?

There were 20 fan magazines of Hollywood stars which had a circulation of 200,000 to one million

Who was Clara Bow?

A movie star who specialised in 'flapper' roles. Many women aspired to be like her and many had a 'Clara Bow' hairstyles.

What had happened in cinema by 1941?

There were nearly 10,500,000 movie theatre seats.
There was a seat for every 12.5 people in America

Why were movie studios influential?

They had almost complete control of stars, staff and the industry as a whole.
They decided which films were shown and set the ratings based on their own criteria

Why was the movie industry lucrative?

Movie stars were tied to a particular studio as so made lots of films in a year
Studios also made deals with sponsors e.g. MGM made a $500,000 deal with Coca Cola that the stars would only drink it on set

What were some of the biggest criticisms of the movie industry?

-Female stars were too scantily dressed
-They smoked and drank too much
-The gangster genre glorified violence and crime
-Some stars were also criticised for going to parties, drinking, drug taking and having casual sex

What was the Hays Code?

It was a set of regulations brought in 1929
From 1930 to 1966, all movies had to conform to this code

What was the rules set out in the Hays Code?

- Crimes should not be shown in enough detail to be copied
-The white slave trade shouldn't be shown
-Family life should be portrayed as a good thing
-Kissing should be kept to a minimum
-No swearing and no nudity

What did the studios' do as a result of the Hays Code?

Studios built a morality code into their stars' contracts to ensure good behaviour and lifestyle

How did tv help to build a national culture?

- Its adverts and programmes meant that people were watching the same thing
- Adverts began to target children with special offers and so they wanted the same things
- People began to buy the same things which created a culture of mass consumerism

What impact did tv have on politicians?

- Political parties began to buy air time for their politicians
- It created a standard that politicians should look right and interview well live
-Eisenhower used it in his 1952 campaign and Kennedy exploited it during his presidency

What happened with the Nixon/Kennedy debate in 1960?

- 70 million people tuned in and they were polled afterwards
- Those who listened on the radio thought that Nixon won the debate
-Those who watched on tv thought that Kennedy won

How did weekly attendance to movie theaters change?

- It dropped from 55 million in 1950 to 20 million in 1975
- This suggests that a rise in television led to a decline in cinema

How did the percentage of tv owners change?

- In 1950, it was just 9%
- By 1980, it was 98%

How did tv expand in the 50s?

- TV production expanded rapidly
- Broadcasts were longer and there were more shows which were prerecorded so people watched TV for longer
- However, conservatives were criticising it for being morally wrong

How did the 1967 Public Broadcasting Act lead to an increased effort to promote racial equality?

- The act set up the Corporation for Public Broadcasting which then set up the Public Broadcasting Service
- They ran a series of educational programmes with the most successful being Sesame Street (1968-now)
- It taught kids about racial equality as well as reading
- Its popularity meant that well off white children in particular were able to observe a positive view of other races

How did TV contribute to a cynical perception of the US government and politics?

- Political satire became more common which reached more members of the public than criticism from serious newspapers
- Television programmes began to focus on government conspiracies in the 60s and 70s

How did TV make the public more politically aware?

- News programmes got more prime time broadcasting and they did more in depth analysis
-Issues raised on the news could become a talking point at home as well as at work

What was See It Now?

A news series run by CBS that in 1954 ran an entire show on McCarthy which helped to expose him to the public as a liar and a bully which contributed to him having less sway on public opinion

How did tv link to the Watergate Scandal?

-Public television played all 250 hours of the Watergate trial in 1973 which helped to change the opinion of many members of the public on the government and the president

How did tv shape public opinion?

- The anchorman on news shows became an authority figure on the news that people felt that they could trust
- It was the television version of most controversial issues that people trusted

How did the Vietnam War impact broadcast news?

- Walter Cronkite's 1968 documentary on Vietnam was shocking to many people because someone that they trusted was criticising a government that they were unsure about
- In August 1965, CBS news showed marines burning the village of Cam Ne to the ground for supposedly helping the rebels and this coverage was critical of the impact of South Vietnamese loyalty
- After Vietnam, broadcast news more often gave their own interpretations of the events and many Americans were unsure about just how far the news was presenting an interpretation

What was the positive impact of WW1 on women?

- Women could vote after they earned more public respect during the war
- The war gave women the chance to work in munitions or canning factories
- The ties to the household were loosened

What was the negative impact of WW1 on women?

- There were very few black women who were able to serve overseas
- Many poorer women didn't get the opportunity to vote or simply voted as their husbands did
- Most women were fired after the war to make way for the returning men

How did the number of working women change from 1910 to 1940?

It went from 8.3% of the population to 9.8%
7,640,000 to 13,007,000

What was the political situation for women in the 20s?

-Only 25% of women voted during the 20s
- Only 2/435 House of Representatives were women
- Women were given the right to vote thanks to the 19th Amendment

What was the economic situation for women in the 20s?

- The number of women in paid employment rose from 8 million to 11 million
- Most working women were from immigrant, black and rural communities and had low paid and unskilled jobs
- Even if they were doing the same job, women got paid less than men
- Educated women pushed into caring professions such as teaching and nursing.
- Law firms usually refused to hire women

What was the domestic situation for women in the 20s?

-The number of married women workers was rising but only 10% worked
- Domestic positions of some women improved due to labour saving devices such as processed food and hoovers
- Cars allowed women to use them for shopping and leisure
- Only a minority of women could afford lots of labour saving devices.
- The average housewife spent 50 hours a week on household tasks

What was the social situation for women in the 20s?

- Increasing availability of cars and speakeasies meant that women could go out more often
- Flappers wore short skirts, cut their hair and danced. Some smoked and drank in public
- Flappers were only a small proportion of women and many became more traditional after marriage

What did the Womens' Bureau of Labour (1932) report?

- That 97% of women workers in slaughtering and meat packing were working because they were the only wage earner in the family or to boost the husband's wage

What did restricting working hours do for many women?

It forced the poorest women to break the rules or lose their jobs

How did the New Deal help women with families?

-The New Deal's Aid for Families with Dependent Children provided some benefits for the poorest families but as a rule men came first

What was the New Deal's impact on black women?

- They were often edged out of the worst jobs by desperate whites
For every dollar a white man earned, a black woman earned 23 cents on average

What was the Housewife Leagues?

-They were set up by a black woman in Detroit in 1930
-They encouraged women to shop in black run stores and to organise local help for those in need

What was the Second World War's impact on female employment?

- The percentage of married women rose from 15 to 23% during the war
- 3 million women worked in agriculture in June 1943 alone
- Worker shortages meant that many black women were able to train for positions that had previously been barred to them
- In 1936, 83% of people thought that married women shouldn't work. By 1942, it was only 13%

What were the problems facing women workers in WW2?

- 1/2 of married women who worked during the war left work when it ended
- Only 16% of married women worked in 1940 because of child care problems
- Some places refused to hire black women saying that they were bound to have and spread sexual diseases
- Women were still paid less than men after the war

What was the post WW2 impact on female employment?

- Federally funded daycare closed down in 1946 so many women left employment
- Widowed, divorced and separated women had no chance but to work
- Before the war, married women were barred from many jobs but restrictions were lifted for the war and rarely reinstated
- Non white women who had been trained continued to work after the war often in domestic positions
- After the war, attitudes to married women working changed again with 36% thinking that they shouldn't in 1978
- Many women acquired new skills during the war that they wanted to continue using after the war

How much did women earn in relation to men by 1950?

They earnt 53% less on average

What was the impact of American suburbs on women?

- Suburbs ended up informally segregated as black Americans who chose to buy in a white neighbourhood faced similar dangers to those trying to integrate schools
- If women worked, they could be excluded from the suburb social circle
- Most suburban housewives had labour saving devices and more well off people had cooks or gardeners
- Education and job opportunities shrunk for girls in inner cities making it extremely difficult to change their position
- Large shopping malls began to be developed in rural areas which gave women more opportunities both economically and in terms of leisure time
- Suburbs created their own social networks and social life
- The lifestyle was presented in the media as the American Dream for all women
- Those who remained in the cities often couldn't afford to move out

What type of work were women mostly in by 1960?

Traditional women roles such as secretary and low paid office work

What did Kennedy set up ?

The Presidential Commission on the Status of Women in 1961 which produced a report in 1963

What did the Commission on the Status of Women's Report say?

- There were wider job opportunities
- Equal Pay Act was not enforced
- Women were discriminated against in access to training, wages and promotion
-Wages were lower than men
- There was not enough day care to support working women

What did Howard W. Smith propose?

- An amendment to the 1964 Civil Rights Act that would outlaw sexual discrimination as well as racial discrimination

In the 60s, what did government inaction spur?

More radical action

What was formed in 1966?

The National Organisation for Women (NOW) which was founded by some of the original members of the Kennedy Commission

What was Executive Order 11375?

It was signed by Johnson in 1967 and outlawed sexual discrimination in any company that worked for the government

What did Johnson promise to do in order to promote sexual equality?

Appoint 50 women to top government posts and asked NOW to advise him on the appointments

What were the economic problems that women identified in the 60s?

- Women had very limited opportunities in the workplace and more than 3/5 of women over 16 didn't have a job
- Only 30% of married mothers had any paid employment in 1960
- Working women earned 57% of what working men earnt in 60s
- Feminists identified the issue of unpaid work such as childcare
- Feminists campaigned for an Equal Rights Act that would outlaw sexual discrimination in terms of hiring and pay
- The wage gap was higher in 1969 than in 1963

What percentage of America's unpaid work was made up of women?

79%

What did radical feminists argue?

That women's identity had been defined by men

What did Ti-Grace Anderson argue?

- That female inequality was rooted in heterosexuality
- Her 1968 essay argued that all hetero relationships are patriarchal and force women to be submissive
- She argued for celibacy/lesbianism or female separatism

What was Weeks vs Southern Bell (1967)?

- It was taken on by NOW after Lorena Weeks argued that Title VII had been violated
- The Supreme Court ruled in her favour

What happened to Jane Daniel and NOW in 1966?

- Jane Daniel received a longer sentence than her male counterpart due to Pennsylvania's Muncy Act .
- NOW found that it violated Title VII and the Muncy Act was struck down

What were the successes of NOW's campaigns?

- Title VII and Executive Order 11375 established the legal foundation for sexual equality
- Legal campaigns showed that the law could be used to ensure justice for women

What were the failures of NOW's campaigns?

- An Equal Rights Amendment was never passed as a result of NOW
- Neither Title VII or 11375 resulted in better pay/ status for women in 60s
- Many radical feminists left NOW due to it not being radical enough
- People also left due to its unwillingness to fight for lesbian rights

What was the Feminine Mystique?

It was a book published in 1963 by Betty Friedan which caused many people to think about their own situation which radicalised many middle class white women

What did the FDA do in 1960?

Approved the birth control pill which gave a lot of women autonomy over their own lives and careers

What was the significance of Roe vs Wade 1973?

It federally legalised abortion

What was the strike of 1970?

- It marked the 50th anniversary of women gaining the right to vote
- Some women just didn't go to work
- Many others took part in demonstrations with demands for equal opportunities in jobs/ education as well as free abortions
- The strike gathered a lot of publicity and NOW's membership rose from 1,000 in 1967 to 40,000 in 1974

What was the case of Eisenstadt vs Baird (1972)?

- Baird was charged with distributing birth control to unmarried women
- A appeal eventually reached the Supreme Court
- Later cases used this ruling to recognise the right of single people to engage in sexual activity

What was STOP ERA?

-STOP stood for Stop taking our privileges and it was a campaign against an Equal Rights Act
- It was set up by Phyllis Schlalfy who did want to lose tax and benefit privileges with civil rights

Who were the types of immigrants that were restricted from entering the country before 1917?

Chinese people
Disabled people

What was the Statue of Liberty a symbol of ?

Freedom and democracy as well as a safe haven for anyone seeking refuge
It had been a symbol of friendship from the French in the late 1800s

Where were an increasing number of immigrants coming from in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

Eastern and Southern Europe

What were the findings of the Dillingham Commission (1911)?

That there were different types of immigrants and the new types of immigrants (mainly from Eastern Europe) were racially inferior and unable to adapt to a new way of life
These findings were used to support the Emergency Quota Act (1921)

What did the Immigration Act (1917) do?

It listed a number of undesirable immigrants to be excluded including gays, insane persons and criminals
It also imposes a literacy qualification for anyone over 16

What was the Emergency Quota Act (1921)?

It restricted the number of immigrants to 3% of the total number of people originating from that country in the 1910 census

Why was there pressure to legislate against immigration in the 20s?

Due to the pressure from the Immigration Restriction League and the First Red Scare and isolationist policies

What was the Immigration Restriction League?

It was formed in 1894 and they campaigned to restrict immigrants
Their members included politicians from the Senate and the House

Why was there particular hostility to immigrants in urban areas?

Immigrants created competitions for housing, jobs which created concerns for longer standing residents

Why was Southern American immigration particularly prevalent in the 20s?

California and Texas needed cheap labour to fuel the economic boom and they shared a border with Mexico

How many Mexican immigrants were deported during the Depression?

Estimated 400,000

What evidence was there of immigrants assimilating into American society?

- As immigrants had American children, the old traditions gradually became less practiced
- In 1914, there were 1300 foreign newspapers published. By 1960s, there were just 75

What evidence was there that immigrants didn't assimilate into American society?

- Most urban areas broke down into informally segregated groups with specific shops and churches
- The Chinese community was one of the most self isolating because immigration had been banned for them

What were the social effects of immigration?

- Most urban areas were broken down into informally segregated areas
- The newest arrivals often found themselves at the bottom of the heap so ended up with the worst jobs, housing and wages
- Ford's manufacturing plants led to a higher demand for workers so immigrants often flocked to these roles

What were the political effects of immigration?

-During the Depression, immigrants campaigned largely for Roosevelt because they were hit the hardest by President Roosevelt
- The large numbers of immigrants meant that local governments tried to appeal to them in order to get the vote
- Children of immigrants were not classed as foreign born which confused legislators when trying to categorise immigrants

What were the cultural effects of immigration?

- The informal segregation in cities meant that traditions and language were kept alive
- These areas had shops selling traditional groceries and specific churches following traditional religious practices
- Ethnic communities allowed immigrants to develop contacts more quickly and use them to find work and somewhere to live

What was the National Origins Formula (1929)?

It confirms the 150,000 limit on immigrants
It bans Asian immigrants altogether

What happened when America entered WW2?

Italian Immigrants
German Immigrants
Japanese immigrants were treated very harshly

What was the effect of WW2 on German and Italian Immigrants?

Their shops and businesses were often broken into or their customers found somewhere else to shop

What was the impact of Pearl Harbour on the number of Japanese immigrants in the US?

Japanese immigrants couldn't come to the US for the duration of the war

How did the government respond to immigrants after Pearl Harbour?

- 120,000 Japanese were placed in internment camps
- Their property was confiscated and they could only take what they carry with them
- Some second generation immigrants were allowed to serve in the army in segregated units

What was the impact of the Cold War on government's legislation towards immigrants?

- 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act revises the laws of immigration and reissued the quota system
- 1953 Refugee Relief Act allows 214,000 refugees from Europe outside the set numerical limit

What was the Cold War's impact of the number of immigrants to the US?

Over 400,000 refugees arrived by 1952 mainly from Communist countries

What was the Cuban Revolution's impact on government legislation toward immigrants?

- The government set up a Cuban Refugees Program to deal with the numbers
-1966 Cuban Adjustment Act gave citizenship to Cubans entering the country after 1959

How did the Cuban Revolution impact the numbers of immigrants entering the USA?

200,000 Cubans fled to the US from 1959 to 1962

How did the Vietnam War impact government legislation towards immigration?

The US passed additional refugee legislation to take in more Asian refugees

How did the Vietnam War affect the number of immigrants entering the US?

- After the fall of Saigon (1975), the US took in 130,000 Vietnamese refugees
- By 1985, there were over 700,000 Asian immigrants which changed the ethnic makeup of many cities

How did increased immigration from Southern American affect government legislation?

- The Immigration and Naturalisation Service (INS) tried to control and deport illegal immigrants
- The INS introduced a 20,000 limit but it didn't stop people from trying to get in illegally?

How did increased immigration from Southern America affect the number of immigrants in the USA?

- The INS estimated in the mid 70s that there were 7 million illegal immigrants in the USA
- In 70s, 645,000 jobs were created and one third were taken by Mexicans

Why did some people love jazz in the 20s?

-Thanks to record players and radio, it spread to all parts of USA
- There were specialist record labels which solely provided jazz and blues music by black performers

Why did some people hate jazz in the 20s?

-It was considered morally low by more conservative people in the 20s
-Many jazz and swing players were black so racists disliked them