Human anatomy 2

Consists of passageways that filter incoming air and ultimately transport it into the microscopic air sacs where gases are exchanged

Respiratory system

The entire process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and body cells is called

Respiration

Respiration includes

ventilation and external respiration

breathing

ventilation

air into lungs gas exchange air out

external respiration

The UROs are lined with

mucous membranes

The mucus functions to

\-trap debris

\-warm and moisten incoming air

Paranasal sinuses

\-drain into nasal cavity

\-lined with mucous membrane

\-reduce weight of skull

\-resonating chambers for speech

Pharynx (Throat)

passageway for air and food

Larynx

voice box

Epiglottis

closes off the airway during swallowing

Glottis

triangular slit opening between two pairs of vocal cords

Sound

originates from vibration of the vocal folds but other structures

Cartilage

C-rings

Trachea (windpipe)

lined by mucous membranes (pseudo stratified columnar ET) with cilia that beat the debris

Carina

point where trachea divides into right and left primary bronchi

Trachea Function

support against collapse and continue to warm moisten and filter air

Bronchial Tree

1. Bronchus leads into each lungs and then branches into lungs
2. Or lobar bronchi, which branch to each lobe and then branch into lobe


1. Tertiary bronchi serve one of 10 lobules that divide into lobules

interlobular bronchioles which branch several times into tubes

Terminal bronchiole

Lined by simple squamous epithelium

respiratory bronchioles

which terminate into numerous air sacs

alveolar ducts

decreases in thickness from ciliated pseudo stratified columnar epithelium in trachea and bronchi

Epithelium changes

goblet cells decrease

mucus production

Cartilage decrease is absent by

bronchioles

Smooth muscle increases

innervated by ANS and hormones

Constricts bronchioles

parasympathetic and histamine

Dilate Bronchioles

sympathetic

microscopic air sacs where gas exchange occurs

Alveoli

form a continuous simple squamous lining of the alveolar wall

Type 1 Alveolar cells

cells interrupt above lining and secrete surfactant (polar property and non polar)

Type 2 Alveolar

remove duct particles and other debris from alveolar spaces

Alveolar macrophage

Alveolar Capillary

Respiratory membrane

Function of Alveolar Capillary

allows for rapid diffusion of gases

Oxygenated blood is

delivered through bronchial arteries

Visceral Pleura

covers the lungs

Right lungs

3 lobes

Left lobe

2 lobes

Ventilation

involves two action inspiration and expiration

Inspiration (inhalation)

breathing air in

Expiration

breathing out

The air pressure outside the lungs is _________to the air pressure inside the lungs

equal

The diaphragm muscle pushes

downward

At 758 mg Hg the intra-alveolar pressure is less than atmospheric pressure and therefore

air rushes into lungs to equalize the pressure gradient

The atmospheric pressure is the main force responsible for

inspiration

Membranes move together

1. thoracic cage expands
2. Parietal pleura expand
3. Visceral pleura expand


1. lung expand

Expiration

breathing out depends on two factors

Compliance

the ease at which lungs can expand

Elastic recoil of tissue

supplies the force for normal expiration without contraction of muscles

Forceful exhale involves contraction of the internal intercostals and abdominal wall muscle lie in the

internal and external obliques

Atelectasis

collapsed lungs

Surfactant

produced by type 2 alveolar cells decreases the surface tension in the lungs thus preventing “complete” collapse of the alveoli

Respiratory Distress Syndrome

is premature newborns occurs due to the lack of surfactant in the alveoli

Respiratory volume and capacities

are measured by a spirometer

Tidal Volume

amount of air that enters the lungs during normal inspirations and leaves the lungs during normal expiration

Inspiratory reserve volume

the amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal tidal inspiration

Expiratory Reserve volume

the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal tidal expiration

Residual volume

amount of air that always remains in lungs

Vital capacity

the maximum amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation

Inspiratory Capacity

total amount of air that can be inspired after a tidal expiration

Functional Residual Capacity

amount of air left in the lungs after a tidal expiration

Total Lung Capacity

VC+RV

Minute Ventilation

MV=TV X RR

Anatomic dead space (ADS)

air space in respiratory passageways not involved in gas exchange

Alveolar ventilation

the amount of air involved in gas exchange

Respiratory center=nervous control

located in pan and medulla of brain stem

Peripheral Chemoreceptor

outside of control center in carotid and aortic bodies of some artiers’s are sensitive to low level of oxygen and high levels of CO2

Diaphragm/intercostals

increase force and rate of breathing

hyperventilation

rapid shallow breathing increase O2 level resulting in alkalosis

inflation reflex

prevents over inflation suring forceful breathing

look blood oxygen

high blood carbon dioxide

low ph

external respiration

the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and lung blood capillaries

the ______ of a gas determines the rate at which it will diffuse from region (Dalton’s law)

pressure

Air is a mixture of gas

1. 78% nitrogen
2. 21% oxygen


1. .04% carbon dioxide

partial pressure

in a mixture of gases the amount of pressure that each gas creates

in air that reaches the alveoli

O2=21%

PO2=104 mm Hg

CO2- .04%

Pro2=40 mm Hg

internal respiration

the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between tissue capillaries and tissue cells

98% of Synge binds with hemoglobin in red blood cells to form

oxyhemoglobin

the release of oxygen from hemoglobin depends on many factors:

high blood \[CO2\]

low blood pH (acidity)

high blood temperature

Carbon monoxide

binds to hemoglobin more efficiently than oxygen

results in Hypoxia

If the hemoglobin (that is supposed to bind with oxygen) is bound to CO, much less Hb is available to bind and transport oxygen to the tissues

bicarbonate ions

70%

carbonic acid disssociates under the influence of the enzyme

carbonic anhydrase to release

Vital capacity decreases with

age

present on the cell membrane surface of our erythrocytes

antigens

our plasma contains substances called

antibodies (produced against non-self antigens)

if the RBC antigen and plasma antibody are the same the serious condition of

hemolysis

agglutination

clumping of red blood cells

Blood is a type of connective tissue in which cells are suspended in a liquid extracellular matrix called

plasma

blood transports substance between body cells and the external environment of help maintain a stable

internal environment

Blood can be separated into 2 major components

1. blood cells


1. plasma

Blood is compose of three of cells

1. erythrocytes (red blood cells)
2. Leukocytes (white blood cells)


1. thrombocytes (platelets)

Blood cells production is called

hematopoiesis

two main lines of cells

myeloid stem cells- gives rise to all except lymphocytes

lymphoid still cells- give rise to lymphocytes

characteristics of red blood cells=erthrocytes

composed of 95% of blood cells

contains hemoglobin which is loosely bound to oxygen

Hemoglobin

=protein (globin)+heme (iron)

oxyhemoglobin

bright red

deoxyhemoglobin

darker red, purple

Sickle Cell Disease

Hb protein differs results in Hb crystallizing when oxygen levels are low causing the RBC’s to become sickle shaped

Mature cells ___________, leaving more room for hemglobin and oxygen. As a result of not having nuclei, they cannot divide

lack nuclei

Red blood cells do not have a ____________, so they produce ATP through glycolysis only.

mitochondria

red blood cell produce

Erythropoiesis