PSYC 102 Midterm 1

What is science?

A community of people following agreed‑upon rules and processes for observing, predicting, and explaining the world

Why is science considered a stronger explanation than authority, observation, or intuition?

Because scientific explanations must survive testing, criticism, replication, and re‑checking, rather than relying on senses, authority, or gut feelings

What does scientific skepticism require?

That scientists do not become attached to theories or hypotheses and remain open to disconfirmation

A hypothesis must be falsifiable… What does this mean?

It must make specific predictions that could be proven wrong by evidence

Why is peer review important for science?

It allows other scientists to evaluate methods and conclusions, helping catch errors and bias

Why can science make generalizations about groups but not individuals?

Scientific assumptions focus on patterns across people, not precise prediction of any single individual

What is intelligence?

The general ability to solve novel problems and learn from experience

Intelligence refers to […], not past achievement

Ability or potential

What does g represent in intelligence theory?

A single general intelligence factor that influences performance across all cognitive tasks

What does s represent in intelligence theory?

Specific abilities in particular domains (ex. verbal, spatial) that operate on top of g

If someone performs well on one cognitive task, does that prove high s but not g?

No. Strong performance often reflects g influencing all tasks, with s explaining relative strengths

What is fluid intelligence (Gf)?

The ability to solve new, abstract problems independent of prior knowledge; peaks early and declines with age

What is crystallized intelligence (Gc)?

The ability to apply learned knowledge and experience; increases or remains stable with age

Does aging lower all intelligence?

No. Gf declines, but Gc stays stable or increases unless dementia is present

Why is IQ research correlational rather than experimental?

Because intelligence cannot be ethically manipulated, so causal claims cannot be made

What is the Flynn Effect?

The observation that average IQ scores increase across generations, largely due to environmental improvements

What is personality?

Consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving over time and across situations

State differences are […], while trait differences are stable personality patterns

Temporary psychological changes

Which personality theory argues traits are learned through rewards and punishments?

The social‑cognitive theory of personality

What are the Big Five personality traits?

Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism (OCEAN)

Why is the Big Five considered the most accepted personality theory?

Because traits are universal, exist on spectrums, predict behavior, and replicate across cultures

Is the MBTI a scientifically valid personality test?

No. It lacks validity and reliability despite being popular

What is an emotion?

A fast, automatic mental and physical response that shapes perception, memory, judgment, and behavior

What are the two dimensions of emotion?

Valence and arousal

According to the Two‑Factor Theory, emotion results from what?

The cognitive interpretation of ambiguous physiological arousal

Why did the Capilano Suspension Bridge study support the Two‑Factor Theory?

Because participants misattributed arousal from fear as romantic attraction based on context (proving that arousal is ambiguous)

What role does the amygdala play in emotion?

It rapidly processes emotional significance, especially fear, via fast and slow pathways

What is the overjustification effect?

Additional external rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation in an already (internally) enjoyable task

What is a trait difference?

Stable personality patterns

What are the three flawed explanations of the world?

1. Authority

2. Observation

3. Intuition

Why is authority a flawed explanation of the world?

Claims depend on who is speaking rather than evidence and can be wrong

Why is pure observation unreliable?

Observations are limited, biased, change over time, and senses can be misleading

Why is intuition an unreliable explanation?

Feeling right does not guarantee accuracy or truth

Which assumption of science states that human nature can be studied scientifically?

Human behavior can be studied through scientific testing

Which assumption of science allows generalizations?

Some aspects of human nature are predictable and universal

Why does science study groups rather than individuals?

Scientific explanations rely on general patterns, not individual cases

What is a theory in science?

A possible explanation for why something works

What is a hypothesis?

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory

What does replication mean?

Repeating studies in the same way to see if similar results occur

Why is replication important?

It ensures findings are reliable and not due to chance or bias

What does it mean to operationalize a variable?

To define a psychological concept in measurable and observable terms

What is an instrument in research?

Anything used to measure an operationalized variable

What is construct validity?

The extent to which a measure actually measures what it claims to measure

What is reliability?

The consistency of a measurement across time or trials

What does power refer to in measurement?

The ability of a measure to detect small differences

[…] + instrument = data

Operational definition

What is naturalistic observation?

Observing behavior in real-world settings without manipulation

What is a case study?

An in-depth examination of a single individual or small group

Why are case studies limited?

They lack generalizability and cannot establish causation

What is a correlational study?

A study that examines relationships between variables without manipulation

Why can correlation not establish causation?

Directionality and third-variable problems exist

What is an experiment?

A study that manipulates an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable

What is an independent variable?

The variable manipulated by the researcher

What is a dependent variable?

The variable measured as the outcome

What is internal validity?

The extent to which a study establishes a causal relationship

What is external validity?

The extent to which results generalize beyond the study

What is reactivity in psychological research?

People change behavior when they know they are being observed

Why are humans difficult to study scientifically?

Because they are (1) complex, (2) variable, and (3) reactive

What is informed consent?

Participants must be informed of risks and agree voluntarily

Why is deception sometimes allowed in research?

Only when justified by scientific value and no alternatives exist

What is debriefing?

Explaining the true purpose of a study to participants afterward

What is confidentiality?

Keeping participant data private and protected

What are the three animal research principles?

Replacement, reduction, refinement

What is genetic determinism?

The false belief that genes fully determine traits

Why is genetic determinism false?

Traits result from gene–environment interaction

Why can genes predict population trends but not individuals?

Genes set the possible ranges of traits, but environments play a roll and are not totally predictable

What do twin studies manipulate?

Genetic similarity

What do adoption studies manipulate?

Environmental similarity

Why are adoption studies quasi-experiments?

There is no random assignment

What percentage of IQ variance is explained by genetics?

Approximately 40–60 percent

What is the strongest environmental predictor of IQ?

Education

How does birth order relate to IQ?

First-borns tend to have slightly higher IQs

Why are group IQ differences controversial?

They are largely explained by sociocultural and environmental factors

What is stereotype threat?

Fear of confirming a negative stereotype that impairs performance

Why does stereotype threat affect test performance?

It increases anxiety and cognitive load

What is phrenology?

A fake science claiming skull shape reflects intelligence

Why is phrenology unscientific?

It is biased, unfalsifiable, and unsupported by evidence

What is eugenics?

The attempt to improve genetic traits through controlled reproduction

Why is eugenics scientifically flawed?

Traits are not solely genetic and diversity is essential for species survival

Why is The Bell Curve considered deeply flawed?

It exaggerates IQ differences, ignores environment, and confuses correlation with causation

Operational definition + instrument = […]

Data

What are the four major theories of personality?

1. Trait theory

2. Social-cognitive theory

3. Psychodynamic theory

4. Humanistic/existential theory

What does trait theory claim about personality?

Personality consists of stable traits shaped by genetics and environment

What does social-cognitive theory emphasize?

Personality is learned through rewards, punishments, expectations, and social experiences

What does psychodynamic theory claim about personality?

Personality arises from unconscious internal conflicts

What does humanistic/existential theory emphasize?

Personality is shaped by the search for meaning, purpose, and self-fulfillment

What are state differences in personality?

Temporary psychological changes such as stress or mood

What are trait differences in personality?

Enduring and stable personality patterns

What is a self-report measure of personality?

A questionnaire where individuals assess their own personality traits

What is social desirability bias?

The tendency to answer questions in a socially acceptable way rather than truthfully

What is the Forer effect?

Accepting vague personality descriptions as highly accurate

How can researchers reduce bias in self-report measures?

Using indirect questions, catch items, and cross-checking with other reports

What is observer bias in research?

When a researcher's expectations influence how behavior is interpreted

What are demand characteristics?

Specific cues in an experiment that influence a participants response or behaviour

What does openness measure in the Big Five?

Curiosity, creativity, and openness to new ideas

What does conscientiousness measure in the Big Five?

Organization, reliability, and goal-directed behavior

What does extraversion measure in the Big Five?

Sociability and energy gained from social interaction

What does agreeableness measure in the Big Five?

Kindness, cooperation, and valuing harmony

What does neuroticism measure in the Big Five?

Emotional instability and proneness to negative emotions

Why are Big Five traits considered dimensional rather than categorical?

They exist on a spectrum rather than in fixed categories