research methods

Identify the four ingredients of a research hypothesis

a research hypothesis must have a statement of IV, a statement of DV, a statement of population of interest and a prediction of the effect of the manipulation of the IV on the DV.

What is the difference between an operationalised DV and an unoperationalised DV?

an operationalised DV specifies exactly how something is going to be measured and should be numerical. an unoperationalised DV is simply a broad statement about how the DV is measured.

What is the difference between an operationalised IV and an unoperationalised IV?

an operationalised IV specifies exactly how the groups will be manipulated and should clearly distinguish between the two experimental conditions. an unoperationalised IV is a broad statement about the variable being manipulated.

Write a research hypothesis that contains the 4 key ingredients for the performance of Year 11 vs. Year 12 students in Unit 3 Psychology

it is hypothesised that VCE psychology students who are in Year 11 will receive a higher mark on their Unit 3 exam in comparison to VCE psychology students who are in Year 12.

What is the purpose of an experiment

the purpose of an experiment is to determine a cause and effect relationship between variables under controlled conditions.

Distinguish between an experimental group and a control group

an experimental group is exposed to the IV to test its effect on the DV. a control group is not exposed to the IV to determine the effects of the manipulation of the IV on the DV.

What is the purpose of a control group in psychological research

a control group serves as a baseline measure of comparison to the experimental group in order to determine the effects of the manipulation of the IV on the DV.

What are the advantages of using an experiment to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

experiments can be easily replicated in order to enhance the reliability and validity of the results. Under laboratory conditions the experimenter is able to control the effects of extraneous or confounding variables. a cause and effect statement can be made when using an experiment.

What is a limitation of using an experiment to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

In experiments there can be a degree of artificiality about testing in a laboratory setting and some concepts cannot be easily measured in a lab setting.

What is meant by a case study

a case study is an in-depth study of an individual or group, used to study rare disorders or conditions that lack large populations.

What are advantages of using case studies to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

case studies provide highly detailed results which can provide ideas for future research and a hypothesis can be proposed. they provide ideas for theoretical explanations and due to the lack of manipulation of variables, artificiality is reduced.

What are limitations of using case studies to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

case studies can't be easily replicated for reliability and there is a lack of control over extraneous variables. conclusions can't be made due to a lack of IV or DV and it can be difficult to generalise data as case studies involve unique situations. collection of data can be difficult and time consuming and case studies are more susceptible to experimenter effect.

What is meant by an observational study

an observational study involves observing and recording behaviour in a natural setting as it occurs and then attempting to generate conclusions based on observations. methods of observation include naturalistic observation, participant observation and non-participant observation.

What are advantages of using observational studies to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

observational studies are able to study things outside a lab setting and enable researchers to gain information in a real life setting without needing to control variables and they allow us to study behaviour that has not been tampered with.

Explain an observer effect

the observer effect occurs when the presence of a researcher affects the behaviour of the organism.

What are limitations of using observational studies to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

observational studies describe behaviour but not the cause of behaviour, and there is a risk of observer effect and observer bias. there can be ethical issues in terms of violation of privacy or lack of informed consent.

What is meant by a self-report

a self-report consists of written or oral responses to questions or statements that allow the individual to provide a subjective account of things such as their attitudes or feelings. types of self-reports include questionnaires, interviews and rating scales.

What are advantages of using self-reports to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

self-reports can provide some highly descriptive data and sensitive data can be gathered due to the anonymous nature of the subjects response.

What are limitations of using self-reports to investigate a theory as opposed to alternative types of research investigations

the accuracy and validity of the data can be affected by difficulty expressing thoughts and honest reasons and difficulty with the interpretation of language in the questions, as well as a low response rate and non-response bias. it can be difficult to statistically analyse and interpret data due to the difficulty summarising the qualitative data.

Clearly distinguish between primary & secondary data

primary data is raw data collected directly by the researcher in order to test a hypothesis. secondary data is collected indirectly from an external source.

What is an advantage of a researcher using primary data as opposed to secondary data

the researcher has control of the data as the researcher facilitates the generation and collection of data to suit their needs.

What is a disadvantage of a researcher using primary data as opposed to secondary data

primary data can be time consuming and costly to collect and process.

What are advantages of using quantitative data as opposed to qualitative data

quantitative data enables more precise analysis as data can be objectively measured and can be easily compared, analysed and summarised.

What are some of the limitations of using quantitative data as opposed to qualitative data

quantitative data lacks the richness of detail that qualitative data can provide.

What are advantages of using qualitative data as opposed to quantitative data

qualitative data provides data that is rich in detail.

What are some of the limitations of using qualitative data as opposed to quantitative data

qualitative data is difficult to statistically analyse because it is often subjective, thus, interpretation of the results is more susceptible to experimenter effects.

What is the difference between an inferential statistic and a descriptive statistic

inferential statistics determine the significance of results while descriptive statistics summarise, organise and describe results. inferential statistics can be used to determine the meaning of results and thus draw conclusions, and implications. descriptive statistics are used for comparison and discussion.

What is an advantage of the use of a table in the results section of a research investigation

the use of a table allows all the scores to be presented in a logical way.

What is a disadvantage of the use of a table in the results section of a research investigation

comparisons between sets of data can be more difficult as it does not provide a summary of data.

What is an advantage of the use of a bar chart in the results section of a research investigation

bar charts provide a user friendly comparison of the frequency of scores.

What is a disadvantage of the use of a bar chart in the results section of a research investigation

bar charts don't provide a summary figure for the ease of comparison.

Distinguish between a measure of central tendency & a measure of variation

a measure of central tendency provides a central score which provides a summary of a set of data. a measure of variation indicates the spread of scores around a central point.

What is an advantage of the use of means to compare data

the mean is a useful summary of a set of data that provides an efficient form of a comparison between experimental conditions. if the scores are clustered around a central score then it provides an accurate and useful representation of those scores.

What is a disadvantage of the use of means to compare data

if the data scores are widely and unevenly spread then the mean may be misleading as it doesn't reflect a useful summary figure of a set of scores

What is an advantage of the use of standard deviation to compare data

a standard deviation provides a useful point of comparison between two sets of data, particularly if they both have a similar mean, as it provides an indicator of the spread of the results around both the means.

What is a disadvantage of the use of standard deviation to compare data

the effect of outliers will not be reflected in the standard deviation, thus the standard deviation may not indicate the shape of the distribution of scores

How could objective data be gathered about a sleep study on VCE students

objective data could be gathered through a fitbit sleep tracker providing observable and measurable data about the sleep of VCE students.

What is an advantage and a limitation of the use of objective data

an advantage of objective data is that it is likely to be free from bias, verifiable and thus is more valid and reliable than subjective data. However a limitation is that objective data typically lacks richness of detail.

How could subjective data be gathered about a sleep study on VCE students

subjective data could be gathered through a questionnaire, that the VCE students can answer about their sleep.

What is an advantage and a limitation of the use of subjective data

an advantage is that subjective data can potentially be rich in detail, however a disadvantage of subjective data is that it is vulnerable to bias, and therefore is difficult to verify and thus often lacks validity and reliability.

How is a repeated measures design carried out

participants are tested twice and are involved in both the control condition, where they are not exposed to the IV, and the experimental condition, where they are exposed to the IV. The results are then compared between the two conditions in order to determine the effects of the IV on the DV.

What are the advantages of using a R.M research design as opposed to alternative research designs

a repeated measures design eliminates participant-related variables, which makes this more reliable than an independent groups design. the same number of results can be obtained with fewer participants compared to independent groups or matched-participants designs.

What are the major limitations of a R.M design as opposed to alternative research designs

a repeated measures research design can lead to an order effect that could potentially confound the results, whereas an independent groups or matched participants research design does not have this problem.

What is meant by an order effect

an order effect is where the sequence in which the experimental conditions have been performed, has affected performance on the latter conditions, thus potentially confounding the results.

What are the 4 types of order effect

The four types are the practice effect, where performance on the second task completed may be better due to experience from the first time, the boredom effect, where participants do worse on the second time due to boredom or fatigue. The third type is the history effect where the time interval between tests may lead to a change in participants characteristics, and finally the carry-over effect, when completing the first condition affects the performance on subsequent conditions.

How can an order effect be overcome

In order to overcome an order effect, the research design needs to be counterbalanced. counterbalancing involves arranging the order in which the conditions of a repeated measures design are completed, so that each condition occurs equally often in each position.

How is an independent-groups design carried out

Each group of participants are assigned to either the control group where they are not exposed to the IV or the experimental condition, where they are exposed to the IV.

What are advantages to the I.G design as opposed to alternative research designs

in an independent groups design there are no order effects as opposed to a repeated measures design, and it is more time and cost effective as compared to alternative designs. There is also a lower participation attrition rate in an independent groups design compared to a matched participants design.

What are disadvantages of the I.G design as opposed to alternative research designs

The independent groups research design is the least effective in controlling participant related variables, compared to other research designs.

What types of characteristics could be matched up on a sleep deprivation experiment that examines the effects of a lack of REM on academic performance in VCE.

the participants could be matched up on previous academic performance, such as mark on year 10 exams, or they could be matched on the typical amount of REM sleep they experience.

What are advantages to the M.P design as opposed to alternative research designs

a matched participants design controls the effects of the variable that the participants have been matched on, and thus it is more effective in controlling participant related variables than an independent groups design. there is also no order effect as opposed to a repeated measures design.

What are disadvantages of the M.P design as opposed to alternative research designs

in a matched participants design, if one member of the pair drops out, the results for the other member is void. The time and cost of pretesting and matching is more excessive than an independent groups design. not all critical factors can be matched, thus it is not as effective at eliminating participant related variables compared to repeated measures design.

What is meant by a cross-sectional study

A cross sectional study is a type of independent groups design, although the allocation to the groups is predetermined, thus comparisons can be made between two groups at a single point in time, based on specific characteristics.

What are advantages of using a cross-sectional study

Based on results it provides an easy form of comparison for different groups in society based on a variable of interest and it can study change over time, enabling comparison between different cross sections of society.

What are disadvantages of using a cross-sectional study

it is more difficult to make cause and effect statements as it is more difficult to control participants related variables, compared to alternative research designs. results can also be affected by the cohort effect.

What is the difference between a confounding variable and an extraneous variable

an extraneous variable may potentially affect the DV in the future, whereas a confounding variable has certainly affected the DV in the past

In an experiment that compared the effectiveness of teaching strategies on Sacre Coeur vs. St Kevin's students - identify the manner in which: individual-participant related variables could act as a confounding variable.

the difference in intelligence between the two schools such as IQ could act as a confounding variable, thus affecting the validity of the results.

What is meant by a placebo effect

the placebo effect is where expectations or beliefs that the participants have, after receiving some form of treatment or intervention, is causing a change in their response or behaviour.

Describe the characteristics of a single-blind procedure

a single-blind procedure involves the experimenter allocating the subjects to the experimental or control groups, so that the subjects are blind to the knowledge of which group they are in.

What is meant by a placebo

a placebo is a fake treatment given to the control group for comparison purposes.

Describe how a placebo effect could be overcome on an experiment conducted on the effectiveness of antidepressants on patients diagnosed with mild depression.

the experimenter could allocate the subjects to either the control or experimental group, ensuring that they are all blind to their assigned group and the control group could receive the placebo and the experimental group could receive the antidepressants.

distinguish the placebo effect from the Hawthorne effect

the Hawthorne effect is a behavioural change simply due to awareness of being observed, whereas the placebo effect is where intervention or treatment causes changes in physiological or psychological responses or behaviours.

What is meant by an experimenter effect

the experimenter effect can occur when the unconscious or inadvertent expectations, personal characteristics or treatment of data by the experimenter may bias the results.

What is the difference between a self-fulfilling prophecy and experimenter bias

a self-fulfilling prophecy is where the experimenter achieves the results they expect to generate and their actions can provide cues to the participants due to the experimenter's expectancy. experimenter bias is where the experimenter's unintentional actions affect the collecting, evaluating and measuring of results.

Describe the characteristics of a double-blind procedure

a double blind procedure uses an assistant to allocate subjects to the control group and experimental group, so that both the experimenter and the participants are blind to the knowledge of which group the subjects are in, thus reducing the effects of the experimenter effect.

Identify and describe how an experimenter effect could be overcome on an experiment conducted on the effectiveness of antidepressants on patients diagnosed with mild depression.

an assistant could allocate the subjects to either the control or experimental group, ensuring that when generating results, the characteristics, influence or bias of the experimenter will not affect the results.

Describe how non-standardised procedures could affect the results of a sleep study in which adolescent participants use a self-report to collect data for two weeks at home.

the participants would be completing the procedures at different times and locations and so those aspects could be extraneous variables that diminish the validity of the results.

What is meant by a correlation study

A correlation study measures the strength of a relationship between two variables.

Define reliability in relation to experimental data

reliability refers to the level of consistency of the data obtained from the experiments, so if the experimental procedure was to be replicated then the data found would be consistent with past data.

Define validity in relation to experimental data

validity refers to how effectively an assessment tool measures, what it is supposed to measure. the procedures used should match the requirements of the experiment to produce results that are relevant to the aims of the research

Distinguish between reliability and validity

validity refers to accuracy and reliability refers to consistency. For example if you measured your biceps with a cloth measure tape that had become inaccurate through stretching, the results would not be a valid measure of your true bicep size, however the inaccurate cloth measure is reliable as it will give you the same result every time.

Why is it important to replicate experimental procedures

experimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and by replicating the experimental procedures, a research is able to determine if their results are reliable. a researcher is aiming to repeat and reproduce the same results to draw reasonable conclusions.

Distinguish between internal validity and external validity

internal validity refers to the extent to which the results are due to the manipulation of the IV on the DV as opposed to the influence of extraneous or confounding variables. external validity refers to the extent to which the results can be generalised to the wider population.

What is the difference between a population and a sample

a population is the larger body of the community from which a sample of participants is drawn. A sample is the smaller subset of the population which will be studied.

What is the difference between participant selection and participant allocation

participant selection is merely deciding who from the population you will use, and participant allocation involves allocating them to different groups and deciding how they will be manipulated.

how do we know if an experiment has used random allocation or not

in random allocation all members of the population have an equal chance of being allocated to the control or experimental group.

How do we know if an experiment has used random sampling or not

in random sampling all members of the population of interest have an equal chance of being selected to form the sample.

What is meant by convenience sampling

it involves selecting readily available subjects without any attempt to make a sample representative of the entire population of interest.

When is convenience sampling likely to be used

it is more time and cost effective than other sampling methods, so it may be used in situations where there is limited time or money available and highly accurate inferences don't need to be made, such as at an experiment in a high school psychology class.

What is a limitation of convenience sampling compared to an alternative sampling method

convenience sampling often leads to a bias sample as it is not representative of the entire population as compared to other sampling methods and thus it prevents valid conclusions and generalisations to the wider public from being made.

How can researchers ensure that a sample is a random sample

the sample must give every person who is a part of the population to be studied, an equal chance of being selected to form the sample.

What are the advantages of using random sampling compared to an alternative sampling method

if the sample is large enough it will be roughly in the same proportions as the population and thus it is more representative of the population compared to convenience sampling. therefore it improves chances of generating reliable data from which accurate inferences and generalisations to the wider population can be made.

What is a limitation of random sampling compared to an alternative sampling method

compared to convenience sampling, random sampling requires more time and cost and accessing the entire population may not be appropriate for all types of research.

What type of strata could be established in a school experiment exploring the relationship between diet and the well-being of students.

the population of interest could be divided into year levels and then a selection can be taken, through random sampling from each strata in the same proportions as the size of the year levels of the population, so all students are accurately represented.

When is stratified sampling typically used

it is used when the researcher wants to understand the existing relationship between a diverse population, and it allows the researcher to represent even the smallest minority sub-group in a population.

What are the 3 steps involved in random-stratified sampling

step 1: place everyone in the population into an appropriate strata.

step 2: calculate the number of subjects required from each strata, in order to form the same proportion found in the population.

step 3: randomly select participants from each stratum to form a representative sample, in a way in which each person in a stratum has equal chances of being allocated to the sample.

What are advantages of stratified random-sampling compared to an alternative sampling method

it enables comparison between groups and attempts to prevent biases by making the sample more representative of both the population and each strata involved, thus potentially generating more reliable results than convenience sampling.

What are disadvantages of stratified random-sampling compared to an alternative sampling method

the time and cost of stratifying the population are high, and it might not be practical to access the complete list of a population, so strata may not be able to be properly established.

Why does Psychology need a code of ethics to guide potential research

primarily, a code of ethics protects the welfare and rights of human participants in psychological research and secondarily, it promotes research that will benefit the community or humankind.

beneficence (values that promote good human research by the National statement of ethical conduct)

the researcher has a responsibility to maximise possible benefits and minimise potential risks or harm.

merit and integrity (values that promote good human research by the National statement of ethical conduct)

it is demonstrated by the researcher's commitment to searching for knowledge that benefits the community, and through using recognised principles of conducting research and disclosing and communicating all results.

justice (values that promote good human research by the National statement of ethical conduct)

the researcher must avoid imposing an unfair burden of research on any individual and they must design research that is fair and does not discriminate during procedures.

respect for persons (values that promote good human research by the National statement of ethical conduct)

it is demonstrated when the researcher regards the welfare, rights and perceptions of all individuals involved in the research.

For experiments the utilised pharmaceutical drugs that may have side-effects on the patient, how is beneficence achieved

if the benefits of the findings from the tests of the pharmaceutical drugs outweigh the risk of the side-effects for the patients, then beneficence has been achieved.

What is the role of the ethics committee and the experimenter in psychological research.

the ethics committee decides if a research proposal is approved or not, as well as if the researcher is qualified to carry out the research. then they are also responsible for monitoring the research, handling complaints and ensuring that the researchers are held accountable for their actions. the role of the experimenter is to follow all ethical guidelines and ensure the welfare and rights of the participants is prioritised.

List the 7 participants rights

protection and security of participant's information, confidentiality, voluntary participation, informed consent, withdrawal rights, deception, debriefing

Mr Scott has decided to use his two Psychological classes in an IQ and personality experiment. what procedures will need to be followed in order to satisfy the ethical principle of informed consent

participants must be given adequate information about the nature and purpose of the study, details about the processes involved in the study, the rights of the participants and all of the potential risks. due to being under 18 consent is required from a legal guardian.

Mr Scott has decided to use his two Psychological classes in an IQ and personality experiment. Under what circumstances will Mr Scott be permitted to use deception on the students in his 2 classes

deception is allowed when the ethics committee has given Mr Scott permission for the deception. He will only be able to use deception if it is warranted for the value of research and appropriate debriefing procedures are in place.