Unit 2: Memory

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing sensory input without prior knowledge, relying on external sensory data.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge or expectations to interpret sensory data.

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information.

Perceptual Sets

Expectations that shape perception, often influenced by experience and culture.

Closure (Gestalt Principle)

Tendency to complete incomplete figures.

Figure & Ground (Gestalt Principle)

Differentiating objects (figures) from their background.

Proximity & Similarity (Gestalt Principle)

Grouping objects close to each other or similar in appearance.

Selective Attention

Focusing on specific stimuli, such as the Cocktail Party Effect.

Inattentional Blindness

Missing changes or details due to distraction.

Depth Perception

The ability to perceive the world in three dimensions and judge distance.

Binocular Cues

Cues for depth perception that rely on input from both eyes, such as retinal disparity and convergence.

Monocular Cues

Cues for depth perception that can be perceived with one eye, including relative size and linear perspective.

Size Constancy

Recognizing that an object remains the same size despite changes in distance.

Shape Constancy

Recognizing that an object's shape remains the same despite changes in perspective.

Algorithms

Step-by-step methods that guarantee a solution to a problem.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but may introduce bias.

Mental Set

Using past solutions for current problems.

Framing

The way information is presented, which can affect decision-making.

Gambler’s Fallacy

The belief that past random events affect future random events.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of information, such as events (episodic) and facts (semantic).

Implicit Memory

Unconscious recall of information, such as skills (procedural memory).

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform future actions.

Working Memory

Memory that involves the temporary storage and manipulation of information.

Multi-Store Model

Model of memory that includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Levels of Processing

Theory that the depth of processing affects how well information is remembered.

Mnemonic Devices

Strategies used to improve recall by organizing information.

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units to improve memory retention.

Spacing Effect

Retention is better with distributed practice than with massed practice.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to maintain it in memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Adding meaning to information to aid in memory storage.

Superior Autobiographical Memory

A rare condition where individuals have an exceptionally vivid personal memory.

Recall

Retrieving information from memory without cues.

Recognition

Identifying information from memory with the help of cues.

Context-Dependent Memory

Enhanced recall when the environment during retrieval matches the environment during learning.

State/Mood-Dependent Memory

Easier recall when in the same mood or physical state as when the memory was formed.

Forgetting Curve

The pattern showing rapid loss of memory immediately after learning, followed by a leveling off.

Interference

The disruption of memory retrieval due to interference from other information.

Misinformation Effect

The phenomenon where false memories are created by misleading information.

Source Amnesia

Forgetting the origin of learned information.

g factor vs. Multiple Abilities

The debate on whether intelligence is a single factor or multiple skills.

IQ Testing

A method for assessing intelligence, formerly calculated as mental age divided by chronological age.

Standardization

Ensuring consistent test procedures across assessments.

Reliability

The consistency of test results over time.

Validity

The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Flynn Effect

The observed increase in IQ scores over generations.

Bias in IQ Tests

The impact of socioeconomic and cultural factors on IQ test performance.

Achievement Tests

Tests that measure learned knowledge.

Aptitude Tests

Tests designed to predict future performance.

Mindsets

Beliefs about intelligence, either as fixed (innate) or growth (able to develop).