Chapter 10

Objective: Describe Americans’ core political values.

• individualism: belief in personal responsibility and decision-making

  • historical: settlers seeking a better life, conflicts with native americans.

  • contemporary: millennials show evolving views.

• equality of opportunity: everyone should shape government decisions and social status

  • founding: declaration of independence emphasizes natural rights.

  • ex. affirmative action addresses perceived inequalities

• laissez-faire (free enterprise): economic system with minimal government interference

  • balancing individualism and equality presents challenges

• rule of law & limited gov’t: rule of law ensures no one is above it; limited gov’t based on consent of the governed, with checks and balances

• need-based assistance: entitlement vs. need-based welfare programs

  • compromise in the 1996 PRWORA between individualism and a safety net

• summary: americans' core political values include individualism, equality of opportunity, a belief in limited government based on natural rights, and a preference for a free-market economy. these values are influenced by historical events and shape political culture.

Objective: Describe how political socialization, cultural factors, and life experiences shape an individual’s attitudes and beliefs about government.

• political socialization: shaping of an individual’s political values, attitudes, and behaviors

• families: significantly influence children’s political views, especially regarding figures and authority

  • discussions, news choices, and shared values are primary sources of political information for children.

• schools & peers: high school civics classes in some states introduce government workings and politics

  • schools create respectful political environments, exposing students to political involvement

  • interaction with diverse classmates broadens perspectives (social conformation)

  • civic education influenced by social class, race, religion, and prior education

• churches/religious organizations: historical struggles for equality influenced political views (ex. catholics, jews, protestants)

  • churches shape political socialization through doctrinal positions, sermons, and member interactions

  • evangelical/white christians tend to be conservative; differences observed among catholic subgroups

  • muslims lean democratic; habitat for humanity fosters community engagement and exposure to diverse viewpoints.

• generational effect: impact of historical events experienced by a generation on their political views

  • silent generation: born before 1945; came of age during wwII and great depression

    • grew up during conformity of 1950s; many value religion and conservativism

    • adhered to rigid gender roles and social structures; some opposed cultural changes in 1960s (ex. womens, black, & gay rights)

    • grew up during cold war; generally support u.s. intervention in international conflict

  • baby boomers: came of age during 1960s; shaped by vietnam and watergate scandal

    • still generally conservative, but better adapted to changes than the previous generation

  • generation X: born mid-1960s-80s; first generation to grow up with internet, which led to more social influence and slightly more liberalism

  • millenials: more ethnically diverse, so more liberal; shaped by 9/11

    • more likely to believe racial discrimination plays a role in society

    • more socialist and favors government policies

  • younger = more likely to be liberal; older = more likely to be conservative

• life-cycle effect: impact of a person’s age and life stage on political views.

  • younger individuals generally less politically engaged than older counterparts

• continuous evolution of beliefs: political views change over time.

  • political beliefs and values evolve as individuals age and experience events affecting their lives and society

• summary: political socialization, influenced by family, schools, peers, and civic organizations, shapes individuals' political attitudes. cultural factors and life experiences contribute to diverse perspectives, impacting political alignment, religiosity, and views on equality.

Objective: Explain how American political culture has influenced other countries and been influenced by globalization.

Influence of American Political Culture on Globalization:

• globalization: increasing interconnectedness globally in communication, education, travel, and business.

  • acceleration in the 21st century riven by global networks in various sectors

  • blurs lines between international and domestic politics, challenging policymakers

• challenges to u.s. superpower dominance:

  • emergence of china: challenges u.s. economic and military dominance.

  • assertive russia: strains u.s.-russia relations; complicates efforts to protect and promote American values worldwide.

• actors on world stage:

  • multinational corporations: operate in two or more countries (ex. nike, mcdonald's, amazon)

  • NGOs (non-gov’t organizations): independent groups working toward a public cause (ex. doctors without borders)

  • IGOs (intergovernmental organizations): challenge country sovereignty (ex. european union, world trade organization)

• globalized economy:

  • american international economic policy: focus on fostering free trade for global prosperity

    • concerns about political costs in trade relationships with authoritarian nations

• free trade: imposes few restrictions on goods and services flow across borders

• trade agreements: ex. NAFTA criticized for job loss (trump administration); TPP endorsed by obama but abandoned by trump

• impact on economy: increase in service jobs, lower prices for consumers; potential for encouraging democratization in participating states

• dark side of globalization:

  • outsourcing: companies moving operations for cost efficiency; results in domestic job loss, potential environmental and labor standard issues

    • weakens traditional cultures

• negative & dangerous connections: globalization connects people/groups with harmful intentions.

• complexity of global forces: challenges U.S. efforts to protect and promote values worldwide; american political culture plays a significant role in navigating these challenges

• summary: american political culture has influenced other countries through cultural exports, diplomatic initiatives, and the spread of democratic ideals. simultaneously, globalization has impacted american political culture by fostering interconnectedness, shaping perceptions of global issues, and influencing policy responses that consider international perspectives.

Chapter 11

Objective: Define public opinion.

• public opinion: the collective sum of individual attitudes about government, policies, and issues

  • cornerstone of democracy: enables citizens to access information about their political system

  • assists officials in understanding the wishes of their constituents

• variability in individual views: americans may differ in the depth of their political views and opinions

• components of public opinion:

  • individual level: involves beliefs and attitudes of individuals, not always well-defined

  • aggregate level: blends individual preferences into a larger concept, challenging due to diverse individual attitudes

• influences: party preference and political ideology play significant roles.

• shifting perspectives: public opinion on police-citizen interactions is evolving

  • pew research indicates differences in views between african american and white respondents on issues like the ferguson shooting

• american public opinion:

  • many agree that americans often lack well-defined opinions on various political issues

• gut rationality: opinions shaped by accumulated experiences and interactions with gov’t

  • not always reflected in political knowledge quizzes

  • assists in making meaningful political choices.

• affiliation influence: party identification influences opinions on candidates and issues

  • social influence: individuals collectively provide meaningful assessments despite incomplete information

  • highlighted by political scientists

Objective: Describe the elements of a valid, scientific public opinion poll.

• election as a tool: requires communicable voter opinions and preferences; elected officials must respond to expressed preferences; limitations when voters don't participate or for complex policy issues

• focus groups: small groups discussing specific issues, offering insights

  • limitations: limited to a smaller scale, cannot represent an entire constituency

• scientific polling: representative poll using randomly selected respondents with a statistically significant sample size and neutral language

• sample: individuals from a larger population used to measure public opinion

• random selection: choosing participants without bias

• representative sample: reflects the demographics of the population

• weighting: adjusting the survey according to the demographics of the larger population

• sampling error: (margin of error) typically calculated to plus or minus three percentage points

• steps to a scientific poll:

  1. define the population

  2. randomly select participants for unbiased representation

  3. avoid voluntary responses to prevent skewed results

  4. prevent sampling bias by ensuring no systematic oversampling or undersampling

  5. strive for a sample mirroring the larger population

  6. use weighting to adjust for demographic differences

  7. present sampling error to indicate result reliability

• types of surveys:

  • entrance survey: conducted of people coming to an event

  • exit poll: conducted outside a polling place, asking individuals who or what they voted for and why

  • benchmark poll: taken at the beginning of a political campaign to gauge support and identify important issues.

  • tracking poll: determines support levels throughout a campaign

• challenges w/ polling:

  • question erder and wording: sequencing and phrasing impact responses

  • push polls: disguised as research but aims to persuade voters rather than measure opinions

  • even accurate techniques can lead to inaccurate data.

  • low-income, less educated citizens are less likely to answer polls, impacting results

• summary: valid public opinion polls involve scientific methods, including random sampling, neutral language, representative samples, and consideration of sampling error. types of surveys, such as entrance, exit, benchmark, and tracking polls, serve various purposes with distinct methodologies.

Objective: Explain how public opinion polling impacts elections and policymaking.

• party identification: one of the most effective predictors of public opinion.

• divisions: along racial, ethnic, gender, socioeconomic, and age lines

  • gender gap: difference in how men and women vote.

• how polls are used: utilized by researchers, candidates, elected officials, interest groups, and media

  • measure americans’ viewpoints on government and politics

  • considered alongside other factors in policymaking

• public opinion & policymaking:

  • representative democracy: u.s. operates as a representative democracy, not a direct democracy

• welfare reform example (1990s): public supported welfare reform

  • personal responsibility and work opportunity act (PRWORA): addressed dissatisfaction with the welfare system

    • included provisions supported by the public, such as job requirements and benefit limits.

  • tax cuts and jobs act (2017): only 3 in 10 americans supported it; passed by Congress despite public opposition

  • example of legislation influenced by political motivations and interests

• role in policymaking: public opinion considered but not the sole factor in determining policy outcomes

  • legislative decisions influenced by political motivations, party dynamics, and interest groups

• impact on elections: party identification remains a strong predictor of public opinion; understanding demographic divisions, such as the gender gap, is crucial in electoral strategies.

• summary: public opinion polling influences elections by providing insights into voters' preferences. policymakers consider public opinion but it's not the sole determinant of policy. the dynamic relationship between public opinion, elections, and policymaking reflects the complexity of democratic governance.

Chapter 12

Objective: Describe the different ideologies of the Republican & Democratic Parties.

• different ideologies of republican & democratic parties:

  • u.s. characterized by diversity, leading to a variety of citizen attitudes

  • policymakers must balance competing ideologies, reflecting the diversity of the population

  • preferences vary between policies emphasizing order and stability versus those promoting individual liberties

  • social and economic issues, such as welfare policies and immigration reform, reflect party differences

• party ideology: a party’s philosophy about the proper role of government and its positions on major issues

  • party identification: individual’s attachment to a political party.

• republican party (conservatism): favors more control of social behavior, fewer regulations on businesses, and less government interference in the economy

  • republicans favor liberty in business, pro-life stance, order in immigration, and strong punishments for criminal offenders

  • support tax cuts for businesses, fewer business regulations, and individual property rights

• democratic party (liberalism): favors less government control over social behavior and greater regulation of businesses and the economy

  • democrats prioritize sexual and marital privacy, pro-choice stance, support less strict immigration policies, and civil liberties in criminal sentences

  • favor tax increases for the wealthy, more business regulation, and restrictions on property use for community protection

• libertarianism: favors very little government regulation and intervention, beyond protecting private property and individual liberty; different from liberalism

• influence on ideology and identification: ideology and identification are distinct, influenced by factors like family, education, and life experiences

  • parties attract members by aligning with specific ideologies on issues and policies

• partisan dynamics: both parties display partisanship, emphasizing ideological contrasts and criticizing opponents

• right: something guaranteed that the government cannot take away.

• privilege: something a person may obtain or receive, but that the government can take away

• summary: republicans, associated with conservatism, favor limited government, individual liberties, and a free-market economy. democrats, associated with liberalism, prioritize government intervention for social equality, business regulation, and public welfare. ideological differences influence party identification and policy stances.

Objective: Describe liberal and conservative perspectives on economic policymaking.

• government intervention in the economy:

  • historical perspective (1776): adam smith advocated for a free-market economy

    • prosperity through individuals pursuing economic interests in a competitive marketplace

      laissez-faire economy: minimizes government intervention, allowing free operation

• monitoring the health of the economy:

  • key Indicators:

    • GDP, unemployment rate, and inflation rate

      • GDP: Total value of goods and services produced

      • unemployment rate: % of people actively looking for work

      • inflation: rise in prices of goods and services

    • consumer price index (CPI): measures the cost of living

• business cycles & theories:

  • business cycle: describes the cyclical nature of economic activity; periods of contraction and expansion.

  • monetary theory: gov’t controls money supply to encourage growth and restrain inflation; gov’t releases money to match economy growth

  • keynesianism: gov’t can use monetary and fiscal policies to stabilize the economy and prevent recessions; advocates government intervention during economic contractions

    • democrats often support keynesian policies, exemplified by the new deal.

    • fiscal policy: gov’t use of taxes and spending to lower unemployment, support economic growth, and stabilize the economy

• supply-side theory: emphasizes demand for goods and services and the role of supply in fostering economic growth; proposes lower taxes on individuals and businesses to combat economic downturns

  • associated with "reaganomics."

  • often criticized as "trickle-down economics."

  • favored by conservatives due to support of businesses

• taxing & spending decisions:

  • republican approach: often supports budgets increasing military spending and decreasing taxes (ex. bush tax cuts)

  • democratic approach: focuses on tax increases for the wealthiest and government spending programs to stimulate the economy (ex. obama's fiscal policy)

• challenges in managing the budget:

  • differences between parties: democrats and republicans differ in how they use taxing and spending to influence the economy; managing the budget is challenging, and deficits are likely to persist well into the future

  • mandatory spending (ex. medicare and social security) made budgeting difficult

• summary: liberal perspectives favor more government intervention to address social and economic inequalities. conservative perspectives emphasize a free-market economy, limited government intervention, and supply-side economics. these ideological differences influence economic policies and approaches to fiscal management.

Objective: Describe monetary policy and how the Federal Reserve uses the money supply to regulate the economy.

• federal reserve (the fed): central banking system of the u.s.; conducts monetary policy to achieve economic goals

  • uses reserve requirements to influence the money supply in the economy

    • reserve rates: proportion of deposits that banks are required to hold in reserve rather than lending out

  • adjusting reserve requirements can impact the amount of money that banks can lend and, consequently, the overall money supply

    • increasing reserve rates, banks are required to hold a higher percentage of their deposits in reservs; reduces the amount of money that banks can lend to consumers and businesses; overall money supply in the economy decreases, which can help control inflation

    • decreasing reserve rates: banks are required to hold a lower percentage of their deposits in reserve; increases the amount of money that banks can lend to consumers and businesses; overall money supply in the economy increases, which can stimulate economic activity

• money supply regulation:

  • tools of the fed: open market operations, discount rate, and reserve requirements.

    • open market operations: buying and selling government securities to control money supply; buying increases money supply; selling decreases it

  • discount rate: interest rate at which banks borrow from the fed; lower rate encourages borrowing, increasing money supply

  • reserve rates: % of deposits banks must hold as reserves; lowering requirements increases money available for lending

• role in economic regulation:

  • inflation control: adjusting money supply to manage inflation

  • interest rate management: influencing interest rates to stimulate or slow economic activity

  • economic stabilization: responding to economic downturns or overheating.

• challenges & considerations: striking a balance between inflation and economic growth.

  • impact on financial markets, exchange rates, and global economy

• summary: the fed employs tools such as open market operations, the discount rate, and reserve requirements to regulate the money supply. through monetary policy, it manages inflation, interest rates, and economic stabilization, playing a critical role in the u.s. economy.

Study Guide Questions

Explain the relationship between core beliefs of U.S. citizens and attitudes about the role of government.

• core beliefs of u.s. citizens significantly shape their attitudes about the role of gov’t

  • role of Individualism: belief in individualism, emphasizing personal responsibility and decision-making, influences an expectation of limited gov’t intervention in individuals' lives. citizens with a strong individualistic orientation may favor policies that prioritize personal freedoms and autonomy.

  • role of equality: value of equality of opportunity aligns with a desire for gov’t policies that ensure a level playing field, allowing citizens to influence decision-making and social status. support for anti-discrimination measures and affirmative action may reflect a commitment to promoting equality

  • role of free enterprise: emphasis on free enterprise and a limited gov’t role in economic transactions aligns with a preference for policies that support a free-market economy. citizens valuing free enterprise may advocate for reduced gov’t regulations and interventions in business activities.

  • role of rule of law: principle of the rule of law, where no one is above the law, implies a need for government institutions to uphold justice and fairness. citizens valuing the rule of law may support strong legal systems, transparency, and mechanisms preventing gov’t overreach

  • role of limited gov’t: belief in limited gov’t, influenced by the idea that individuals have inherent rights, shapes an attitude favoring policies that restrict government intrusion. citizens with this belief may support measures such as constitutional checks and balances to prevent excessive gov’t power.

  • political ideology: political ideology, whether leaning toward conservatism (favoring limited government and traditional values) or liberalism (favoring government intervention to address social and economic issues), determines specific policy preferences. conservatives may emphasize individual freedoms, while liberals may prioritize social equality and government involvement.

  • political Spectrum: political spectrum, ranging from left (liberal) to right (conservative), reflects the diversity of attitudes about the role of government. Individuals on the left may advocate for government intervention to address inequalities, while those on the right may prioritize limited government involvement in personal and economic matters.

• the core beliefs of u.s. citizens, including individualism, equality, free enterprise, rule of law, and limited government, play a pivotal role in shaping their attitudes toward the appropriate role and functions of government in american society. these attitudes manifest along the political spectrum, influencing policy preferences and political ideologies.

Explain how factors influence political attitudes and socialization.

• political attitudes and socialization are significantly influenced by various factors that shape an individual's beliefs and values

  • role of family: families are primary agents of political socialization, transmitting values, beliefs, and political ideologies to children; discussions, exposure to political events, and the political behavior of family members contribute to the formation of political attitudes

    • family environment plays a crucial role in shaping initial political orientations, as individuals often adopt the political perspectives of their parents or guardians

  • role of school/peers: schools and peer groups provide additional socialization outside the family context; civics education, political discussions in classrooms, and interactions with diverse peers contribute to the development of political awareness

    • exposure to diverse viewpoints in schools and interactions with peers with differing political beliefs can shape and broaden political attitudes, challenging or reinforcing existing perspectives

  • role of media: media, including news outlets, social media, and entertainment, is a powerful force in shaping political attitudes; media exposure influences the framing of issues, shapes public discourse, and can contribute to the formation of political opinions

    • biases in media, as well as the information and narratives presented, can influence the public's understanding of political events, contributing to the polarization of political attitudes

  • role of social environments: broader social environment, including community, workplace, and cultural influences, contributes to political socialization; cultural norms, societal values, and community attitudes all play a role in shaping individuals' political perspectives

    • individuals may align their political attitudes with the prevailing views in their social environments, seeking acceptance and conformity within their communities

• political attitudes are shaped through a complex interplay of factors. The family, school, peers, media, and broader social environments all contribute to the political socialization process. The interactions within these various contexts expose individuals to diverse perspectives, shaping their understanding of political issues and influencing their political attitudes and beliefs.

Describe the elements of a scientific poll.

• elements of a scientific poll:

  • random sampling: representative sample is randomly selected from the population to ensure every individual has an equal chance of being included; minimizes bias and allows for generalization of results to the entire population

  • neutral language: questions are phrased in a neutral and unbiased manner to avoid leading respondents toward a particular answer

    • ensures that the respondents' opinions are not unduly influenced by the wording of the questions

  • sample size: sufficiently large number of respondents are included to provide statistically significant results

    • larger sample sizes reduce the margin of error and increase the reliability of the poll

  • representative sample: demographics of the sample mirror those of the larger population

    • ensures that the poll accurately reflects the diversity of the population

  • random selection: participants are chosen randomly within the selected sample to avoid systematic biases

    • ensures that each individual in the sample has an equal chance of being included

  • weighting: adjustments are made to the survey data to account for underrepresented or overrepresented demographic groups

    • ensures that the sample accurately reflects the population's characteristics

  • margin of error: statistical measure indicating the potential range of error in the survey results

    • provides an estimate of the precision of the poll results.

• how they are used:

  • informing decision-making: scientific polls are used by political campaigns, policymakers, and organizations to gauge public opinion on various issues; results help decision-makers understand public sentiment and make informed choices

  • predicting election outcomes: polls are commonly used to predict election results by estimating support for candidates and identifying trends.

  • measuring public opinion: polls are employed to measure public attitudes on social, economic, and political issues; serve as a tool for understanding the public's stance on different policy matters

• what they tell us:

  • public opinion: scientific polls reveal the distribution of opinions within a population on a given issue; provide insights into the prevailing attitudes, beliefs, and preferences of the public

  • trends over time: polls conducted at different times allow for the identification of trends and shifts in public opinion; trends help analysts understand how opinions evolve over specific periods

• how they are constructed and conducted:

  • define population: identify the target population for the survey, such as voters or specific demographics

  • random selection: use random sampling methods to select participants from the defined population

  • question design: develop clear, unbiased, and neutral questions to gather relevant information

  • data collection: administer the survey using methods like telephone interviews, online surveys, or in-person interviews

  • data analysis: analyze the collected data using statistical methods to draw conclusions and interpret the findings.

  • reporting: present the results, including the margin of error and key demographic breakdowns, to ensure transparency and clarity

Explain the quality and credibility of claims based on public opinion data.

• how is it interpreted to determine the accuracy

• what makes one poll better than another

• how are they relied upon in the political arena

Explain how the U.S. political culture influences the formation, goals, and implementation of public policy over time.

• why are there different beliefs

• how do the differing ideologies shape policy debates

• how do you balance individual liberty with government stability

Describe the different political ideologies regarding the role of government in the marketplace.

• how do conservatives and liberals differ regarding the role of gov’t

• fiscal policy (keynesian vs. supply-side economics)

• monetary policy

• reserve functions and differing ideologies

• differing attitudes on free trade and protectionism

Explain how political ideologies vary on the role of government in addressing social issues.

• differing views on privacy

• differing views on entitlement