Intro to US Politics - Final Exam

2025 CU Boulder PSCI 1101

Define public opinion

those opinions held by private citizens which govt should listen to

Describe ways that public opinion can be measured

public opinion measured by polling, elections, suffrage, freedom of speech and press

Explain six elements that contribute to the forming of opinions.

1. attitudes: consistent and organized manners of thinking 

2. ideologies: elaborate organized sets of beliefs; connect labels of liberal and conservative

3. partisanship: more indicative of opinions is party measurement; very rooted in personal identity

4. acquiring attitudes and ideologies: Political socialization, peer groups, conforming with social group, validating material or psychological aspirations

5. information: individuals are reluctant to actively engage with politics if not directly growing up with it or interacting with it

6. framing: beliefs and attitudes will also be shaped by context i.e. Biden being old = liability

Individual political opinions can be easily manipulated, quickly cemeted, contextual influence, inconsistent → all of this while being generally uninformed.

Discuss to what extent public opinion is meaningful

Individual opinions are badly informed, easily manipulated, and unstable. We use aggregate public opinion. Aggregate public opinion is generally stable over time.

Aggregate partisanship also impacts the perception of how the president in i.e. extremely low ratings from Republicans and vice versa

Free-riding problems also resolved by opinion leaders; opinions given rationality and coherence.

Describe the role that group differences such as gender and race can have on public opinion.

Gender, race, and income (in order) as cleavages in public opinion. These areas are more likely to predict public opinion in specific areas.

Other factors include educations, religion, age. Politicians will pay attention to specific groups as opportunities for coalition building strategies.

Discuss the influences and limitation of public opinion in American politics.

measuring and influencing is super important for American politics. Mass media becomes an influence of opinion as well.

Limitations include: general resistance to attitude changes, required to work by framing choices favorably rather than changing minds.

Areas of public opinion consensus

 general support of capitalist economy with private ownership and free enterprise (variation in degree of regulation), ideals in the Constitution (amendments), dislike for politicians in general

Sociotropic voting

voter is doing okay but things around them aren’t great so you vote based on that

Age & Framing

wasn’t an issue until Biden v. Trump debate when it became experience (know how) vs. age (liability)

Partisanship

political affiliation as a predictor of attitude; if you identify as Democrat you will stick with party beliefs, even if they change their platform

Ideology Conservative vs. Liberal

• Conservative: small government across issues, free market 

• Liberal: progressive across issues, government intervention, interpretivist constitution

How has polling changed in the history of American politics?

Scientific polling is a method of sound out on public on variety issues or to market ideas, policies, and politicians. A very good tool for systematically investigating the opinions of ordinary people. Better demonstration of people who stay at home (not a measurement of crowd sizes, loved the textbooks jab at this).

Explain the logic of elections in a democracy

Self-government upon independence was impossible, so we have elections to delegate authority while preventing agency loss. However, elections do not guarantee faithful representation.

Describe how different segments of American society obtained the right to vote.

Wider suffrage for men → suffrage for women → suffrage for people of color → suffrage for young Americans

Discuss the factors that affect how people vote.

Using cues and shortcuts to make decisions despite uncertain future; free information delivered by news, campaign advertising, opinion leaders, peer groups, party identification, and personal experience, past performance and incumbency.

Some people are also single issue voters, tand this will significantly influence how they vote.

 Identify the basic elements of election campaigns.

Candidates: person portrayed as sufficiently qualified and trustworthy for job; candidates can notably lack political experience, talent, temperament, or background

Messages: focus groups to talk to regular people about candidates, issues, and events; Trump v. Clinton US vs. Them ideas; showing “I’m Just Like You!” (Vance vs. Walz); getting attention, debates, political advertising and attacks

Discuss the role of campaign money in elections.

US has super long campaign periods where negative advertising is much more effective than positive kind because of loss aversion

”They don’t worry about voters, they worry about money”

Discuss the principal-agent theory as it applies to elections.

Contrast of interests to voter vs. the elected in a republic system.

”They don’t worry about voters, they worry about money”

Biggest factor of voter decisions

Economic performance is highest on people’s minds; Kamala says in her book, thats what people go to sleep thinking about

Individual factors for turnout

• Age: older people turn out, younger people less turnout

• Race: highest for white and asian individuals

• Region: South has lowest turnout 

• Length of residence: longer you live in a community, more likely to vote

• Homeowners: own a home, more worried about property taxes

• Employed: more likely to vote, unemployment decreases sense of efficacy; sort of helplessness

  • Efficacy in general: higher sense that actions can influence future, more voting

• Church: religious communities in general, social capital increases likelihood to vote

• Women vote a higher rates than men

Describe the origins of political parties and their basic features.

Initially Federalists and Democratic Republicans which arise from disagreements in economic policy, federal government involvement, and foreign policy; however, these were not stable parties

Summarize the development and evolution of the party systems.

1st: Organized opposition, Federalist and Democratic-Republicans with Federalist party collapse

2nd:  Fallout from election of 1824; formation of Democratic Party to counter successors to the Federalist party (the Wiggs); Slavery is not yet a differentiator between parties → each party has pro- anti- slavery contingents

3rd: emerged in the aftermath of Civil War when third party Republicans became dominant in the North and challenged Democrats; Rise of anti-slavery Democrats and Wiggs who flee to create Republican party dominant in the North

4th: developed in the 1890s, as the Democrats become party of rural interests during Reconstruction; Republicans consolidated the urban vote

5th: aftermath of Great Depression → urban/Southern coalition of Democratic Party going against Republicans (typically professional classes in the Northeast Midwest; Party with two different bases of power → urban/southern groups → FDR balances interest of these two groups

6th: modern day, still urban/Southern Democratic Party but some unionized northern democrats are shifting to Republicans

Party systems are not set!

Discuss the revival of partisanship over the past two decades.

Falling amounts of independent people, rebounding of strong partisans; people are more firmly sorted into parties and attached issues

Define lobbying and its role in the political process.

Groups with interests in changing government decisions working to create those decisions; we also have professional lobbyists

Summarize the historical development of organized lobbying in the United States.

Madison would hate interest groups because factions; but these groups solve collective action issues and protect lots of first amendment rights. →helps advocate for the regular people

Explain why contemporary interest groups have proliferated.

Successful interest groups influenced by growing middle, educated, and affluent class → new policies create constituencies ripe for organization

Compare and contrast different types of interest group activities.

Fragmentation: too many different groups are not effective in instituting change

Specialization: Cancer research lobbying is promoted by American Cancer Society while being broken into different groups

Describe the role of interest groups in American elections.

Trafficking information, identifying candidates for associations

Influencing political forces, like grassroots organizations

Litigation like ACLU lawyers

Assess the role of interest groups in American politics.

PACs (tax exempt political activism groups) contribute to candidates, sometimes intentionally buying Congress seats

Summarize the development of media as a business and the role technology has played over time.

Discuss the ways in which the news is a consumer product and how that influences legacy news organizations, digital-only sites, and social media outlets.

Explain the demand for news and how news affects people.

Explain why the media is considered a "fourth branch" of government.

Describe the relationship between politicians and reporters.