The Language of Composition - Chapter 3

argument

a persuasive discourse, a coherent and considered movement from a claim to a conclusion

Rogerian arguments

arguments based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating

claim

states the argument's main idea or position

has to be arguable

to develop it into a thesis statement, you have to be more specific about what you intend to argue

claim of fact

they assert that something is true or false

claim of value

they argue that something is, for example, good, bad, right, wrong, etc.

claim of policy

anytime you propose a change, you make a _______________

closed thesis

a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make

open thesis

a statement of the main idea of the argument that does not list all of the points the writer intends to make

counterargument thesis

when a writer's statement of the main idea of his argument is preceded by a summary of a counterargument

relevant evidence

evidence that specifically applies to the argument being made

accurate evidence

evidence that is taken from a reliable source and not misquoted

logical fallacy

potential vulnerabilities in an argument

red herring

when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion

faulty analogy

when two things that are not comparable are compared

hasty generalization

when there is not enough evidence to support a particular conclusion

Example: "Smoking isn't bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90."

circular reasoning

fallacy that involves repeating the claim as a way to provide evidence, resulting in no evidence given at all

Example: "You can't give me a C, I'm an A student!"

first-hand evidence

something you know, whether it's from personal experience, anecdotes you've heard from others, observations, or your general knowledge of events

second-hand evidence

evidence that is accessed through research, reading, and investigation

Examples: factual and historical info, expert opinion, quantitative data

appeal to false authority

when someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is cited as an authority

quantitative evidence

evidence that can be represented as numbers

the classical oration

five-part argument

consists of an intro, narration, confirmation, refutation, and conclusion

introduction

introduces the reader to the subject under discussion

narration

provides factual info and background material on the subject at hand or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing

also refers to telling a story or recounting a series of events that supports your thesis

confirmation

proof/evidence

refutation

addresses the counterargument and is the bridge between the writer's proof and conclusion

conclusion

brings the essay to a satisfying close

induction

arranging an argument so that it leads from particular to universals

deduction

when you reach a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth and applying it to a minor premise

syllogism

a logical structure that uses the major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion

Toulmin model

an approach to argument that is useful in uncovering the assumptions that underlie arguments

contains six elements: claim, support (evidence), warrant (the assumption), backing, qualifier, and reservation

warrant

The logical reasoning connecting the evidence to the claim

backing

further assurances or data without which the assumption lacks authority

qualifier

limits the claim (e.g. most, or usually)

reservation

explains the limits of argument

rebuttal

gives voice to possible objections

begging the question

a fallacy in which a claim is based on evidence or support that is in doubt

description

emphasizes the senses by painting a picture of how something looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels

often used to establish a mood or atmosphere

makes it easy for the reader to empathize with the speaker, their subject, or their argument

process analysis

explains how something works, how to do something, or how something was done

when using this format, it's important to explain a subject clearly and logically, with transitions that mark the sequence of major steps, stages, or phases of the process

exemplification

providing a series of examples - facts, specific cases, or instances - turns a general idea into a concrete one

examples are a type of logical proof called induction

comparison and contrast

juxtaposing two things to highlight their differences and similarities

classification and division

answers the question, "What goes together and why?" in order to make connections between things that might otherwise seem unrelated

most of the time, a writer's task is to develop his or her own categories, to find a distinctive way of breaking down a larger idea or concept into parts

definition

used to clarify the meaning of terms

often the first step in a debate or disagreement

cause and effect

identifying why something happens and what happens in result of it

ad hominem

this fallacy attacks the person/speaker instead of the argument at hand

ad populum

this fallacy occurs when evidence boils down to "everybody's doing it, so it must be a good thing to do"

either/or

a fallacy in which the speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices

post hoc ergo propter hoc

this fallacy occurs when one claims that something is a cause just because it happened earlier

straw man

a fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately poor or oversimplified example in order to ridicule and refute an idea