AP Psych - Unit 2 Cognition - Teacher Slides

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What is the purpose of encoding in memory?

Encoding involves processes and strategies to get information into memory, affecting how effectively it is stored and retrieved.

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What is the spacing effect?

The spacing effect refers to the phenomenon where information is better retained when encoded over time rather than all at once.

What does the serial position effect predict?

The serial position effect predicts that information presented at the beginning (primacy effect) or end (recency effect) of a list is more memorable than information in the middle.

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeatedly practicing information to prolong its storage in memory.

What is elaborative rehearsal?

Elaborative rehearsal involves rehearsing information in ways that promote meaning, enhancing memory retention.

What is highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM)?

HSAM is a condition where individuals demonstrate an exceptional ability to recall personal life events, suggesting biological processes for superior memory storage.

What are some factors that can negatively affect memory storage?

Factors include physical impairments, developmental limitations, amnesia (retrograde and anterograde), and Alzheimer's disease.

What is the difference between recall and recognition in memory retrieval?

Recall is retrieving information without cues, while recognition relies on retrieval cues.

What enhances memory retrieval based on environmental context?

Context-dependent memory occurs when retrieval is enhanced by being in the same environmental space as when the information was encoded.

What is mood-congruent memory?

Mood-congruent memory refers to the enhanced retrieval of memories that match an individual's current mood.

What is the testing effect in memory retrieval?

The testing effect is the phenomenon where retrieval practice enhances long-term memory retention.

What does the forgetting curve illustrate?

The forgetting curve shows that forgetting occurs rapidly after initial learning and levels off over time.

What are some reasons for memory failure?

Memory failure can occur due to encoding failure, interference (proactive or retroactive), or inadequate retrieval.

What is repression in the context of memory?

Repression is a defense mechanism where distressing memories are forgotten to protect the ego.

How can the accuracy of memories be affected?

Accuracy can be affected by the misinformation effect, source amnesia, or constructive memory processes.

What is the role of mnemonics in memory encoding?

Mnemonic devices, such as the method of loci, aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory.

What is the significance of schemas in perception?

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that help organize and interpret information, influencing perception.

What are prototypes in cognitive psychology?

Prototypes are mental representations of the most typical examples of a category.

What is the role of heuristics in problem-solving?

Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making and problem-solving processes.

What is the concept of mental set?

Mental set refers to a tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences.

What is framing in decision-making?

Framing is the way information is presented, which can significantly affect decision-making and judgments.

What is executive function in cognitive processes?

Executive function involves higher-level cognitive processes that regulate thoughts and actions, including planning and decision-making.

What is creativity in the context of cognition?

Creativity is the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas or solutions.

What is the debate regarding the definition of intelligence?

Whether intelligence is a general ability (g) or comprised of multiple abilities.

How is intelligence traditionally measured?

Through intelligence quotient (IQ) tests, which divide mental age by chronological age.

What is the Flynn Effect?

The observed increase in IQ scores across much of the world over time due to societal factors.

What are the key principles that psychological assessments must adhere to?

Sound psychometric principles including standardization, validity, and reliability.

What does it mean for a test to be standardized?

It is administered using consistent procedures and environments.

What types of validity are important for a test?

Construct validity and predictive validity.

What is meant by a test's reliability?

It yields similar results each time it is administered.

What are the types of reliability?

Test-retest reliability and split-half reliability.

How do personal and sociocultural biases affect IQ scores?

They can impact the interpretation of individual IQ scores and their relationship with outcomes.

What are achievement tests designed to measure?

What someone knows.

What do aptitude tests predict?

How someone will perform in the future.

What is encoding in the context of memory?

The process and strategies used to take information and store it in long-term memory.

What is a mnemonic device?

A technique that aids in encoding information into memory.

What is the method of loci?

A mnemonic device that involves associating information with specific locations.

What is the serial position effect?

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.

What is context-dependent memory?

The improved recall of information when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding.

What is state-dependent memory?

The improved recall of information when an individual is in the same state as when the information was encoded.

What is retrograde amnesia?

The inability to recall past memories due to brain injury or trauma.

What is anterograde amnesia?

The inability to form new memories after a brain injury or trauma.

What is infantile amnesia?

The inability to recall memories from early childhood.

What is Alzheimer's disease?

A progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss and cognitive decline.

What are the four types of memory processes?

Sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory.

How does maintenance rehearsal help memory?

It prolongs storage by repeatedly going over information to prevent forgetting.

What is chunking in memory strategies?

Chunking involves combining bits of information into meaningful units to enhance memory retention.

Give an example of chunking.

Remembering a bank account number in smaller segments.

What are mnemonic devices?

Techniques that help people remember information more easily by organizing it in a memorable way.

What is massed practice?

Learning information all at once, which can lead to a false sense of understanding.

What is distributed practice?

Spacing out learning sessions to enhance memory retention and understanding.

What is the primacy effect?

The phenomenon where information at the beginning of a list is more memorable due to more rehearsal time.

What is the recency effect?

The tendency to recall information at the end of a list more easily because it is still fresh in memory.

How does the order of information presentation affect memory?

The order can influence recall, with items at the beginning and end being remembered better than those in the middle.

What is the capacity and duration of sensory memory?

Sensory memory lasts a few seconds and has a very limited capacity.

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What is working memory?

A dynamic form of short-term memory that not only stores but also processes information.

What is the capacity of long-term memory?

Long-term memory has an unlimited capacity for storing information over long periods.

Which brain areas are involved in storing explicit memories?

The hippocampus and frontal lobe.

Which brain areas are believed to store implicit memories?

The cerebellum and basal ganglia.

When do memory storage processes primarily occur?

During sleep.

What is autobiographical memory?

A type of memory that involves recollection of personal experiences and events from one's own life.

How does autobiographical memory affect memory storage?

It may indicate biological processes for superior memory storage and explains why self-connected memories are more memorable.

What are the two types of amnesia?

Anterograde amnesia (inability to form new long-term memories) and retrograde amnesia (loss of memories formed before trauma).

What role does the hippocampus play in memory?

It is crucial for encoding new memories.

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What is state-dependent learning?

The phenomenon where memories formed in a particular physiological state are easier to recall in the same state.

What is the testing effect?

Improved memory retention when information is retrieved through testing rather than just studying.

What is metacognition?

Awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, which can enhance memory retrieval.

What is a retrieval cue?

A stimulus that aids in the retrieval of information from memory.

What is encoding specificity?

The principle that retrieval is improved when the conditions present at encoding are also present at retrieval.

What is the tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon?

A retrieval failure where a person cannot recall a word or name but feels that retrieval is imminent.

What is a false positive in recognition?

An error where a person mistakenly believes they recognize a stimulus that is not actually in memory.

How does Alzheimer's disease affect memory?

It is associated with a deficiency in acetylcholine, leading to memory impairment.

What is the relationship between memory retrieval and how information was encoded?

Retrieving information from long-term memory is influenced by the way that information was originally encoded.

What are some factors that can enhance memory retrieval?

Being in the same context, mood, or physiological state as when the information was encoded.

What is the significance of superior autobiographical memory?

It suggests that some individuals may have biological advantages in memory storage and recall.

What is the impact of physical impairment on memory storage?

Conditions like amnesia and Alzheimer's can negatively affect memory storage processes.

What is the role of sensory memory in the memory process?

It is the initial stage of memory, where sensory information is briefly stored before being processed into short-term memory.

What is the difference between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM)?

STM holds information temporarily, while LTM stores information more permanently.

What is the importance of encoding in memory storage?

Encoding is the process of transforming information into a format that can be stored in memory.

What is the effect of rehearsal on memory retention?

Rehearsal helps to strengthen memory storage and retrieval by repeatedly practicing the information.

What is the significance of memory tests in understanding memory function?

They can reveal the effectiveness of memory storage and retrieval processes.