Responses to Oppression and movements to independence

Q1: What was the general European attitude toward Africans in the Caribbean?

A1: Europeans viewed Africans as inferior, barbaric, and “dirty, stinking animals” (Dyde, Greenwood, Hamber), leading to their harsh treatment during slavery and colonisation.

Q2: What forms of resistance did the Indigenous peoples use during the Columbian Era?

• Marronage (running away)

• Suicide and infanticide

• Poisoning with cassava

• Starvation

• Armed resistance against Spaniards

Q3: How did enslaved Africans resist oppression under slavery?

• Marronage

• Suicide and infanticide

• Secret meetings despite bans

• Gossip and verbal defiance

• Formation of cultural coping methods

Q4: What is the difference between insurrectionary and non-insurrectionary resistance?

• Insurrectionary: Violent resistance (e.g., revolts, property destruction, murder of owners)

• Non-insurrectionary: Passive resistance (e.g., pretending to be ill, faking ignorance, gynaecological resistance)

Q5: List four major revolts during the slavery period.

A5:

• 1791 Haitian Revolution

• 1816 Barbados Rebellion

• 1823 Demerara Revolt

• 1831 Baptist War (Jamaica)

Q6: What are examples of passive resistance methods?

• Malingering (pretending to be sick)

• Sabotage of equipment

• Gynaecological resistance (e.g., prolonged breastfeeding, abortion)

• Pretending not to understand orders

Q7: What were some post-emancipation responses to oppression?

• Establishment of free villages and peasantry

• Asian indentured servants opening businesses or returning home

• Cultural resistance through festivals, music, religion

Q8: What was the significance of the 1930s labour riots?

They led to:

• Wider voting rights (expanded franchise)

• The birth of political parties

• Trade unions to fight for fair wages

• Self-government movements (e.g., Moyne Commission)

Q9: Name two cultural responses to oppression.

• Emergence of Rastafarianism as anti-colonial identity

• Creation of steel pan bands in Trinidad when drums were banned

Q10: How was literacy used as resistance?

A10: Leaders like Sam Sharpe, Toussaint L’Ouverture, and Nanny used reading and writing to understand colonial systems and organise resistance.

Q1: What led to the formation of the Caribbean peasantry after 1838?

A1: The end of slavery led many ex-slaves (freedmen) to leave plantations and form free villages, supported by missionaries. They bought land using money earned during apprenticeship and became small-scale farmers.

Q2: What actions did freedmen take to establish themselves economically after slavery?

• Bought land and became subsistence farmers, selling surplus at markets.

• Grew crops like coffee, ginger, pimento (Jamaica); arrowroot (St Vincent); cocoa and copra (Grenada).

• Developed trading systems like higgling in Jamaica.

• Exported crops through local brokers.

• Some joined co-operatives or squatted on Crown lands.

• Practised metayage (sharecropping) in French islands like St Lucia and Tobago.

• Some worked nearby plantations but milled cane on estates and shared profits.

Q3: List the main difficulties faced by peasants.

• Land was unsurveyed and hard to access.

• Governments restricted sale of Crown lands.

• Much of the land was marginal, infertile, and remote.

• Licences were required to sell crops like sugar and coffee.

• Planters opposed peasant development.

• Land buyers were exploited, paying high prices for poor land.

• Mobility was restricted by laws limiting movement within and between colonies.

• High fees were charged for selling and producing charcoal.

Q4: How did the colonial government support peasant farming?

• The Imperial Department of Agriculture advised on crops and introduced new ones.

• Grants and loans improved steamship services for export (e.g., £20,000 to Elders & Fyffe for banana exports).

• Encouraged land purchase:
  

  • In Trinidad (Sir Arthur Gordon, 1868), Crown land was sold at low prices.

  • In British Guiana, land prices were reduced.

  • In Grenada, abandoned estates were distributed to farmers.

  • In Jamaica, small farmer numbers doubled from 1860 to 1910.

  • In St Vincent, estates were converted to arrowroot farms.

• Botanical gardens were created to introduce seeds, demonstrate farming methods, and distribute plants.

• Land prices were lowered to support new export crop farming.

Which new crops were introduced and where?

1. Rice – British Guiana

2. Bananas – Jamaica

3. Limes – Dominica, St Lucia

4. Sea Island Cotton – Montserrat, St Vincent

5. Cocoa – Trinidad, Grenada, St Lucia, Dominica

6. Arrowroot – St Vincent

7. Rubber – Trinidad, British Guiana

8. Coconuts – Nevis

Q6: What were the effects of successful crop export markets?

• Peasant class grew in size and importance as sugar plantations declined.

• Standard of living improved due to income from new crops.

• Banks and co-ops helped farmers save and reinvest in land and tools.

• Peasants began exporting crops (e.g., ginger, pimento, coffee).

• Trade systems evolved between local brokers and European markets.

Q7: What were the long-term effects of peasant development on Caribbean society?

• Towns, villages, schools, and health services grew inland.

• New roles emerged: shopkeepers, blacksmiths, tailors, shoemakers.

• Higglers and wholesalers transported goods to coastal towns.

• A two-way trade system developed:
  

  • Farmers exported produce.

  • Coastal merchants sold manufactured goods to villagers.

• A new economy separate from the plantation emerged.

• Coastal towns became commercial hubs with rising importance.

Q1: What is political enfranchisement and how did it begin in the Caribbean?

Political enfranchisement refers to the right of people to control their own political affairs. After the abolition of slavery in 1834, although there was little immediate improvement in ex-slaves’ lives, the demand for greater freedoms increased. This led to constitutional decolonisation—where colonies moved toward self-rule and independence.

Q2: How did migration influence political change?

Many Caribbean people migrated to work abroad (e.g., Panama Canal, Cuban sugar plantations, Puerto Rican textile factories), gaining exposure to new ideas and conditions. These experiences inspired demands for political participation and better living standards, fuelling the drive for independence.

Q3: What was the significance of the 1930s labour uprisings?

Economic hardship and poor living conditions led to widespread strikes, riots, and protests across the Caribbean. Charismatic leaders like Uriah Buzz Butler, Alexander Bustamante, Cola Rienzi, and Captain A.A. Cipriani emerged from the labour movement, transitioning into political leadership. Their efforts brought attention to workers’ rights, health, and education.

Q4: How were trade unions important to Caribbean politics?

Trade unions championed workers’ rights and became the birthplace of political parties. Labour leaders used their popularity to advocate for broader political changes, directly leading to the formation of nationalist political movements.

Q5: What is universal adult suffrage and when was it introduced in the Caribbean?

Universal adult suffrage is the right of all adult citizens to vote without discrimination based on race, gender, wealth, or social status. It was introduced in:

• 1944 – Jamaica

• 1945 – Trinidad and Tobago

• 1950 – Barbados

• 1951 – Antigua and Barbuda, St Lucia, St Vincent, Guyana, and St Kitts

Q6: What is internal self-government and why were Caribbean people disappointed with it?

Internal self-government meant that a locally elected head of government and cabinet could manage domestic affairs (excluding security). Though a step forward, Caribbean people were disillusioned because:

• Britain still controlled finance, trade, and foreign policy

• Governors retained control over police, prisons, and public order

• True independence was not achieved

Q7: What is economic enfranchisement and how did it develop in the Caribbean?

Economic enfranchisement is the right of people to manage their own economic development. After emancipation, freedpeople sought to become independent by:

• Creating free villages and peasantry

• Diversifying from sugar to crops like banana, cocoa, coffee, and arrowroot

• Aiming for economic self-reliance and avoiding plantation labour

• Engaging in trade and building export connections

Q8: What challenges did peasants face in their quest for economic freedom?

• High land rents and risk of eviction

• Planters refused to sell land to peasants

• Credit and investment were hard to access

• Sabotage by elites who wanted to preserve economic control

Q9: How did entrepreneurship contribute to independence?

• Peasants saved profits from selling crops using savings banks established in the 1870s

• These savings helped buy more land and tools

• The rise of small businesses, tradesmen, shopkeepers, and other economic actors contributed to the growth of a self-reliant economy