WYP Notes

Chapter 2: US History

Who arrived in the Americas in 1492?

Columbus

Q: What was the first permanent British settlement in America, and when was it established?

A: Jamestown, in 1607.

Q: What crop was crucial to Jamestown's economy?

tobacco

Q: What were the main causes of the American Revolutionary War?

• 1) Decreasing benefits of British rule after the French and Indian War (1763).

• 2) Rising costs like taxes without representation.

Q: When did the Continental Congress declare independence?

A: July 4, 1776.

Q: What was the first governing document of the U.S., and when was it enacted?

A: Articles of Confederation, 1781.

Q: What system does the U.S. Constitution create to divide authority?

Federalism

Q: What are three central government powers under the U.S. Constitution?

A: Taxation, raising an army/navy, and regulating interstate commerce.

Q: When was the Bill of Rights ratified, and what did it protect?

A: Ratified in 1791, it protected freedoms like expression, religion, and rights of the accused.

Q: When did the first African slaves arrive in Jamestown?

1619

Q: What were the two aspects of slavery in the U.S.?

A: Transatlantic Slave Trade and Chattel slavery.

Q: Why did slavery concentrate in the South?

A: Climatic advantages for crops like cotton and the invention of the cotton gin.

Q: What land did the U.S. gain after the Revolutionary War?

A: Land between the Appalachian Mountains and Mississippi River.

Q: What was the Louisiana Purchase?

A: Land purchased from France in 1803.

Q: Stages of Mexican Cession in 1840s

• First two of these territories stemmed from conflict with Mexico as white slave owners were settling in the land despite Mexico abolishing slavery and immigration of American settlers 

• Settlers demanded themselves an independent republic in 1836 and US annexed it in 1845 

• Mexican war in 1846-1848 - gained cession 

Q: What territory did the U.S. acquire after the Mexican-American War?

Mexican Cession

What sparked the Civil War in 1861?

Secession of Southern states and the attack on Fort Sumter.

What did the Emancipation Proclamation do?

Freed slaves in rebelling states (1863).

What amendments were passed post-Civil War?

13th: Abolished slavery (1865). 14th: Defined citizenship and ensured equal protection under the law. 15th: Prohibited voting restrictions based on race.

What ended Reconstruction?

Compromise of 1876.

What were Jim Crow Laws?

Laws enforcing racial segregation and restricting Black rights.

What was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882?

Banned Chinese laborers from entering the U.S.

How did the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965 change policy?

Replaced quotas with preferences for family, skills, and refugee status.

What is unauthorized immigration?

Entering legally but overstaying visas or arriving without authorization.

What was the Civil Rights Act of 1964?

Banned racial discrimination in economic transactions.

What Supreme Court case legalized same-sex marriage?

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015).

What period regulated food, drugs, and banking?

The Progressive Era (1887–1916).

What was the New Deal?

A response to the Great Depression, expanding federal economic regulation.

What were two major U.S. domestic policy focuses in the late 20th century?

The Drug War (1970s) and War on Terror (post-9/11).

Chapter 3: US Government

What is the US federal government?

A system dividing authority between central and state governments.

What does "Republic" mean?

From Latin res publica meaning "public thing"; a system where the government is accountable to the people as a whole.

What is a representative democracy?

Citizens elect officials who make decisions on their behalf.

What is the separation of powers?

Government authority is divided into three branches under the US Constitution.

What do the first three articles of the US Constitution establish?

The legislative, executive, and judicial branches of the federal government.

What are checks and balances?

Counteractive powers that each branch can use to constrain or affect others.

What is Congress?

The legislative branch of the federal government, consisting of a bicameral legislature.

What does bicameral mean?

Composed of two separate bodies: the House of Representatives and the Senate.

How many members are in the House of Representatives, and how often are they elected?

435 members, elected every two years.

How many senators are there, and what are their term lengths?

100 senators (two per state), serving six-year terms with staggered elections every two years.

What did the 17th Amendment change in 1913?

Allowed for statewide popular elections of senators instead of selection by state legislatures.

What is an incumbent?

The current occupant of a House or Senate seat.

What are the three features of legislative organization?

Political parties, congressional leadership, and congressional committees.

What is a majority caucus?

The majority party and aligned legislators who decide on the legislative agenda.

Who is the Speaker of the House?

The Constitutionally recognized leader of the House, typically from the majority party.

What is the Senate Majority Leader?

The most senior position in the Senate, responsible for managing legislative priorities.

What is the purpose of congressional committees?

To review bills, conduct investigations, and oversee specific legislative areas.

What is Congress's primary function?

Passing laws.

What is required for a bill to become law?

A majority vote in both chambers and no veto from the President, or a ⅔ override of the veto.

What is a filibuster?

A tactic in the Senate to delay or derail legislation.

How is a filibuster defeated?

Through a cloture vote requiring a ⅗ majority.

What is reconciliation?

A process for passing budget-related bills with a majority vote in the Senate.

What role does the Senate play in policymaking?

Provides "advice and consent" for federal appointments and treaties.

What is impeachment?

The House can impeach officials for "high crimes and misdemeanors," and the Senate conducts the trial.

Who is the head of the executive branch?

The President of the United States.

How often are presidential elections held?

Every four years.

What limits does the 22nd Amendment place on the presidency?

Presidents can serve a maximum of two terms.

What is the Executive Office of the President (EOP)?

Agencies and councils assisting the President, including the National Security Council and Office of Management and Budget.

What are cabinet-level departments?

Departments like Justice, State, and HUD, led by officials who advise the President.

What are independent commissions?

Agencies like the SEC and FTC, led by commissioners with fixed terms who cannot be fired by the President.

What is the Federal Reserve System?

The independent central bank of the US that sets monetary policy and regulates the money supply.

What is an executive order?

A directive from the President on how the executive branch operates under existing laws.

What is the President's role in foreign policy?

Negotiating treaties, commanding the military, and conducting foreign operations.

What is the federal budget deficit?

The gap between government revenue and expenditures in a given year.

What is the national debt?

The total amount borrowed by the federal government that has not been repaid.

What does Article III of the Constitution establish?

The federal judiciary system.

How are federal judges appointed?

Nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate for lifetime appointments.

What are federal district courts?

Trial courts where most federal cases begin, with 94 districts nationwide.

What are Circuit Courts of Appeals?

Intermediate appellate courts with 13 circuits handling appeals from district courts.

What is the role of the Supreme Court?

It has discretionary authority to hear cases, typically taking 100–150 cases per year.

What is the common law tradition?

Courts only rule on specific cases brought before them, following precedent.

What is the Supremacy Clause?

Federal law takes precedence over state law.

How are state courts organized?

Hierarchical, with trial courts, intermediate appellate courts, and a state-level high court.

How are state judges selected?

Through elections or appointments, followed by retention votes in some states.

Chapter 4: US Politics

What is a single-member district?

A district where only one member of Congress can represent it.

What is malapportionment?

Uneven population distribution in congressional districts, often favoring rural over urban areas.

What was decided in Wesberry v. Sanders?

States must draw district boundaries to make populations as equal as possible.

Define gerrymandering.

Strategically drawing district boundaries to achieve political goals, like maximizing party seats or protecting incumbents.

Why doesn't gerrymandering apply to the Senate?

Each state is entitled to two senators regardless of population.

What is the difference between general and primary elections?

General elections determine officeholders; primary elections decide whose names appear on the ballot.

Compare closed and open primary elections.

Closed primaries allow only registered party members to vote; open primaries permit all voters regardless of party affiliation.

What are political action committees (PACs)?

Groups that pool contributions to donate to candidates supporting specific causes, with restrictions under federal law.

What was the impact of Citizens United v. FEC (2010)?

Allowed unlimited independent expenditures by corporations and unions, leading to the creation of Super PACs.

What are Super PACs?

Organizations that make unlimited independent expenditures without legal limits.

What is the Electoral College?

A body of electors chosen by states to formally elect the president and vice president.

How are a state's electors determined?

By its total representation in Congress (House seats + 2 senators).

What happens if no candidate wins a majority of Electoral College votes?

The House of Representatives decides the election.

What are swing states, and why are they important?

States where election outcomes are uncertain; candidates focus their campaigns here.

What is a caucus in the context of presidential primaries?

Meetings where citizens discuss and vote on candidates.

Define brokered convention.

When no candidate wins a majority of delegates, party elites negotiate the nominee.

What are political parties?

Coalitions aimed at electing candidates and implementing policies.

What are party platforms?

Sets of policies and positions members generally support.

Who are the core constituencies of the Democratic and Republican parties?

Democrats: urban residents, unions, minorities, professionals. Republicans: rural residents, businesses, social conservatives.

What is partisanship?

Strong allegiance to a political party, often resembling social identity.

How do political scientists define a 'party'?

As a party in government, organization, or electorate.

What are examples of broad social movements?

The civil rights movement and women's suffrage movement.

What is lobbying?

Influencing incumbents to adopt specific policy stances.

How are interest groups regulated in the U.S.?

Lobbyists must register with the government.