Motivation and Emotion unit 2

main aspects involved in motivation

what did Plato say about motivation? 1 pt

motivation flows from a hierarchally arranged soul containing three aspects:

1. appetitve aspect- bodily appetites and desires such as hunger and sex

2. competitive aspect- social standards e.g. feeling honoured or shamed

3. calculating aspect- reason and choosing

what did Aristotle say about motivation? 1 pt

endoreses plato’s structure but uses other terminology:

1. nutritive aspect (appetitive)- impulve and irrational

2. sensitive aspect (competitive)- bodily related and regulates pain and pleasure

3. rational concept- unique to humans, intellectually related

what did Descartes add to the mind-body dualism? 2 pts

1. body- a mechanical and motivationally passive agents that responds to the environment through senses, reflexes and physiology

2. mind- inmaterial and motivationally active agent; a spiritual thinking entitity that possesses a purposive will

what is will? 1 pt

1. Will = Choosing + Striving + Resistance

2. was found to be too difficult and mysterious as an explanation for motivation

3. led to the appearance of the motivational principle-insitinct

what is Darwin’s biological determinism theory? 1 pt

behaviors are primarily shaped by genetics and biology rather then environmental factors

what is the Man-Animal dualism theory? 1 pt

the human-mind and human-body are 2 distinct entities unlike with animals that are viewed as lacking a conscious

Instincts according to Darwin

1. arise from a physical substance

2. express themselves through inherited bodily reflexes given the appropriate stimulus

what were the reasons fo the decline of instincts? 3 pts

1. lists of instincts grew to over 6000

2. underlying theory was exposed to be circulated; instincts cause behavior but behavior is evidence of instincts

3. when 2 similar animals are raised with differnt life expereinces instincts do not leas to similar behaviors

characteristics of drive? 5 pts

1. brought as a replacement for instincts

2. drive’s source- biological urge/bodily deficit

3. drive’s impetus- intensity of the bodily deficit grows and provokes discomfort

4. drive’s object- seeking to reduce anxiety and satisfy the deficit

5. drive’s aim- if the object satsfies the deficit satisfaction occurs

what is Hull’s drive theory?

1. states that motication has a purely physiological basis

2. predicts motivation before it occurs

3. when responses are followed by a reduction in drive learning occurs and the specifc habit is reinforced

4. motivation is calculated from 0-1

what is evidence against Hull’s drive theory? 3 pts

1. some motives arise without biological needs

2. research acknowledges external motivators of behavior

3. learning often occurs without an corresponding experience of drive reduction

what are the contemporary theories of motivation?6 pts

1. humanistic theory- maslow

2. two factory theory- herzberg

3. self-efficacy- bandura

4. goal-setting theory

5. attribution theory- weiner

6. expectancy theory- vroom

Humanistic theory, Maslow (1954)

1. posits a hierarchy of human needs based on deficiency needs and growth needs

2. each lower need must be met before progressing to the next level

criticisms:

1. some individuals may strive for self-actualization without satisfying lower needs

2. no causal relationship between needs and behavior has been established

two-factor theory, Herzbery

proposed that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from 2 different sets of factors rather than from opposite ends of a single continuum:

1. motivators/intrinsic factors- responsibilities, recognition, growth opportunities, and achievement

2. hygiene/ extrinsic factors- company policies (salaries, facilities), work conditions (temp, environment), and quality of supervision in relation to others

he found that motivator (intrinsic) factors increased job satisfaction while hygiene (extrinsic) factors cause job dissatisfaction

a lack of job satisfaction =/= job dissatisfaction

criticisms of Herzbergs two factor theory? 3 pts

1. focuses more on job satisfaction then motivation as their relationship was not analysed and only assumed to be strong

2. no overall assessment of satisfaction

3. is salary a motivator factor or hygiene factor

what is self-efficacy according to bandura? 1 pt

belief in one’s capacity to succeed at tasks based on the skills possessed and the circumstances faced

self-efficacy (global) =/= self-esteem/ability (specific)

what is doubt? 1 pt

the opposite of self-efficacy as it undermines our confidence in out ability to cope leading to surprises, setback, and difficulties that result in anxiety, confusion, bodily tension etc

what are the requirements of competent functioning? 2 pts

1. possessing skills i.e. ability

2. the capacity to translate skills into effective performance

example: planning something requires creativity

importance of self-efficacy vs self-esteem/ability in determining competent functioning? 1 pt

self-efficacy and ability are equally important in determining competent functioning because performance situations are often stressful, ambiguous, and unpredictable with circumstances continually changing

factors that lead to the development of self-efficacy? 4 pts

1. enactive mastery- learning from one’s own direct experiences of success/failure; choice approximation vs avoidance

2. vicarious experiences- forming beliefs about one’s ability by observing others expecially those similar to ourselves e.g. self-modelling; effort and persistence

3. verbal persuasion- the influence of feedback, encouragement, or discouragement from others; thought/decision making

4. physiological arousal- interpreting one’s bodily and emotional states as signs of competence of incompetence; emotional reactions e.g. anxiety

NB: self-fullfilling prophecy can also affect the development of self-efficacy

what is self-modelling? 1 pt

a form of vicarious learning where the person learns by observing themselves perform a behavior successfully; you are your own model e.g. through videos of them succeeding at something

what is competence? 1 pt

sheer desire and intrinsic motivation to challenge onesself for the spontaneous satisfaction the activity brings

similar to self-efficacy but are NOT interchangeable

what are the building blocks of self-efficacy? 1 pt

efficacy expectations

what are the building blocks of learned helplessness? 1 pt

expectation outcomes

characteristics of learned helplessness? 5 pts

1. a person experiencing this perceives factors outside their control as the determinants of outcomes rather than their own behavior

2. a learned response

3. aversive effects on our motivation- decreased willingness to try because what’s the point

4. aversive effects on our learning- interferes with one’s abilities to learn new response-outcome contingencies

5. aversive effects on our emotions- belief that nothing can be done about one’s situation cause energy-depleting emotions (depression) to appear more than energy-mobilizing ones (fear)

characteristics of goal-setting theory

A. discrepancy can be understood in 2 ways:

1. reduction of discrepancy- involves the information provided by the environment about the alignment between the current and desired state

2. creation of discrepancy- based on a straighforward system where the person looks ahead and sets higher goals

B. TOTE model:

1. Test- compare present state with ideal state

2. Operate- act on environment to get the ideal state

3. Test- compare present state with the ideal state

4. Exit- present state in congruity with ideal state

C. Goal difficulty, energises behavior:

1. difficult goals stimulate high efforts leading to linear increases in performance

2. they enhance persistence causing individuals to work longer and improve their performance

contributes to enhanced performance

D. Goal specificity, directs behavior:

1. increases attention and focus

2. increases planning and speed of working

3. increases direction

contributes to enhanced performance

E. Enhanced performance:

1. if feedback shows performance is at or above goal level → feeling of satisfaction → discrepancy creation

2. if feedback shows performance is at or below goal level →feeling of dissatisfaction → discrepancy reductionn

when is goal acceptance high? 4 pts

1. goals are easy to moderately difficult

2. goals are self-set and not forced on you

3. goals are assigned by credible people

4. goals promise forthcoming personal benefits

criticisms of goal setting?

1. primary purpose is to enhance performance not necessarily motivation

2. most effective when tasks are uninteresting or straighforward otherwise does not enhance performance

3. associated with stress, opportunity of failure, and risks surrounding creativity and intrinsic motivation

characteristics of weiner’s attribution theory?

1. motivation is determines by causal factors

2. causal factors are determines after the awareness of the results

3. if the result is positive and expected → trust on the plan and feeling of happiness

4. if the result is negative and unexpected → feelings of surprise and sadness and need to modify the feeling

5. explanation are found in 1. locus of control, 2. stability, 3. control

locus of control? 1 pt

originates from the actor, the environment, or other people

stability? 1 pt

reflects whether the causal factor remains stable or changes over time

control? 1 pt

indicates whether the causal factor was under the actor’s control or beyond it

characteristics of the expectancy theory (vroom)?

A. aims to intergrate many elemts of prior theories and combines the perceptual aspects of equity theory with the behavioral components of other theories

B. uses the formula : M = V * I * E where:

1. M(otivation)- the extent to which a person is motivated by their current experience

2. V(alence)- perceived strength of the reward or punishment resulting from performance

3. I(nstrumentality)- the person’s perception that performance will lead to a reward or punishment

4. E(xpectancy)- person’s belief that effort will result in performance depending on the effort put in

C. Expectancy/effort → Instrumentality/performance → Valence/rewards where:

1. expectancy effort- person believes that effort will lead to an acceptable perfomance influenced by self-efficacy, goal difficulty, and perceived control

2. instrumentality performance- belief that a person will receive a reward in their performance meets expectations and decreases when the reward is the same for all levels

3. valence rewards- the value an individual places on the expected rewards or outcomes and if the reward in not meaningful motivation diminishes

criticisms of vroom’s expectancy theory? 3 pts

1. focuses on outcomes rather than needs unlike maslow’s hierarchy theory

2. assumes that behavior results from conscious decisions among alternatives with the primary goal of maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain

3. a contigency model that recognizes there is no universal method for motivating people and is based on individual factors e.g. personality, skills, knowledge etc