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What are moral dilemmas?
These are instantaneous situations in which an agent (doer) is confronted with two or more conflicting moral obligations. The doer cannot fulfill all of the moral duties presented to him, they can only choose one that will result to the greater good.
In moral dilemmas, it’s either all of the choices are good options or all of them are bad so whatever you choose, it’s categorically considered good or bad. However, even if you failed to fulfill other moral obligations, what matters most is to choose an action that is most appropriate and best as of the moment.
How do you make an ethical decision during a moral dilemma?
To choose your moral/ethical decision, you will use your conscience to ensure that your decision will be considered in good fate. Meaning involving sound judgment, honesty, fairness, and lawfulness of purpose.
What is crisis in Ethics?
The word “crisis” comes from the Greek term “krisis,” meaning, deciding or act of separating. In this context, crisis in conscience, occurs when you are dealing with two (or more) good results of an action. In other words, this is the process of making decision before a moral dilemma. It occurs when a person's actions conflict with their values, beliefs, or sense of right and wrong.
What is the difference between Crisis and Moral Dilemma?
Crisis occurs before a decision in a moral dilemma has been made. This is the stage before moral dilemma. The process of making decisions by separating and filtering all the available options.
On the other hand, moral dilemma happens after the crisis. When a person has already made a decision, then the person is now in post-crisis.
*It is possible to not experience moral crisis if u did not think it through
What is Conscience?
Conscience is the most important element that you will use in your decision-making process in moral dilemmas.
Innate standard of good and evil - it is something we possessed even before we were born.
It is bound with our nature as rational beings. This is our ability to identify the “telos” or end of an action. This allows us to consciously act towards a sense of fulfillment – good.
As per Thomas Aquinas, another way to define conscience is a man’s practical reason oriented to the “telos” of the good. “Good must be done, Evil must be avoided.
How does conscience function differently during ordinary circumstances and times of crisis?
In ordinary circumstances, conscience functions in a linear way. So whenever we make moral decisions in our normal day-to-day life, our conscience are closed and it only follows the certain moral lifestyle a person has chosen. This is because our conscience can be shaped/molded and good conscience is developed by habitually living a “virtuous life”. So the phrase “walang konsensya” is wrong, as far as ethics is concerned, because conscience cannot be lost. It can only be erroneous but it can also be corrected.
But, in times of crisis and extraordinary circumstances, conscience becomes open and functions in a dialectical position - meaning, our conscience adjusts in any situation and might go unconventional. So, in times of crisis, our conscience does not follow the moral lifestyle we chose to adapt but it is our practical reason that dictates what is good at a certain moment. And though unconventional, an action is still considered ethical as long as the main basis for deciding and acting is “goodwill.”
What is the best way to educate your conscience?
The best way to educate our conscience is by practicing or habitually living a virtuous life. Being virtuous is being consistent in practicing to choose what is good everyday. By practicing, it will become a part of you system, thus, it will be natural and easy for you to do what is good.
What is the difference between general conscience and specific conscience?
General conscience tells us when something is a good choice or a bad choice and that this decision is in agreement with what that thing actually is according to the law or general ethics.
Specific conscience tells us whether an action is aligned to the kind of specific person you want to become. Our decision must be consistent with our character.
What is Good Will?
Good will is the heart of ethics. In Tagalog, this is “Mabuting loob or kusang loob”. And according to Immanuel Kant, “Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called ‘good’, without qualification, except a good will.” This means that the rightness of an act is still incomplete if without goodwill. To consider an action as morally right, it must be done and affirmed by “willing.”. It means to act out of a sense of moral obligation willfully, with have full consent, not coerced. And by doing so, you fulfill both good and right.
What is the difference between culture and tradition?
It is set of norms, practices and values that characterize both the minority and majority groups. In an ethical perspective, a set of values that are deeply shared by a specific group – what makes them common
On the other hand, tradition is an English word that comes from the Latin verb tradere, which means "to hand over" or "to pass down". It is the process of handing over the norms, practices, and values that makes up culture.
Tradition is the process of handing over while culture is object being passed down.
What is Cultural Relativism? What is its main premise and claim?
Cultural relativism is a convenient term for socially approved habits. It states that Morality differs in every society - what is right within one group may horrify another group, and vice versa. It holds that there is no such thing as universal moral truths; the only thing that exists is the customs of different societies. The basis or standard of right and wrong are culturally bound.
What are the common claims of cultural relativists?
There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society’s code as better than another’s.
The moral code of one’s society has no special status; it is but one among many. (All of us are equal, therefore no one can correct anyone).
It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them. - Cultural relativists promote tolerance of other cultures. However, this claim should be clarified, “norms of a culture reign supreme within the bounds of the culture itself.
What is the general argument against cultural relativists?
There is no such thing as a total absence of universal or absolute truth - It does not mean that both parties disagreed with one other, there is already absence of objective truth for that matter. There might be an objective truth involved but both parties failed to see it. That’s because people have the tendency to look for another’s difference rather than what makes them similar. No matter how different we are with each other, there are still universal truths that all societies must embrace, because those rules are necessary for society to exist.
Ex. All of us agree that we must preserve lives, all of us also agree that all of us have human dignity that we ought to respect.
To what kind of law is cultural relativism applicable to?
Cultural relativism is applicable mainly to specific laws, also called local laws or special legislation. It is a law that applies to a particular person, thing, place, or situation designed for a specific purpose.
If a specific law is in contradiction with a general rule, the general one must be followed.
What are the types of Virtue Ethics?
➢Eudaimonist Virtue Ethics
➢Agent- Based and Exemplarist Virtue Ethics
➢Target-Centered Virtue Ethics
➢Platonistic Virtue Ethics
What is Virtue Ethics?
third category of normative ethics.
A kind of normative ethicsfocuses on the character of the person (character formation), rather than the action.
The rightness and wrongness of an act is determined by the level of growth and maturity a person has. In VE, the character of a person determines whether an action is good or bad.
It's concerned with the totality [wholeness] of the person’s life, rather than just particular situations or action
The foundation of virtue ethics can be traced back to “essentialism”
What is the difference between essentialism and existentialism?
Essentialism states that “essence precedes existence”. It claims that there is an essence to our being, meaning every person already has a purpose that precedes our birth and this plays a huge role in determining our future. Essentialists believe that humans are intrinsically good. And that innate goodness will be the one that will shape a person’s character. Following this line of thought: Right character produces right action because right action follows right character. So, the one that will shape your theory is your character.
Conversely, Existentialism states that "existence precedes essence”. Meaning, you have to exist first then your character will develop after. Existentialists believe that life has no predefined purpose, we just exist and we have the freedom to mold ourselves in whatever way we want. Humans are the ones that give meaning to their own life and try to make rational decisions despite living in an absurd world. So here, it is your theory that will shape your character.
What does it mean to be a virtuous person?
Aristotle would described virtuous person in his Nicomachean Ethics as someone who performs virtuous actions in the correct way:
knowing what he is doing - they are aware and can predetermine the possible outcome of their action - They are sensitive and careful
choosing them for their own sake - they do the right action in all circumstances regardless of the consequences and duty -
and doing them from a well-grounded disposition - they are consistently living according to the virtues they’re holding on to.
It’s about how a person handles himself consistently.
How do we establish a good society according to virtue ethics?
Virtue ethics would suggest that to establish a good society, we must help people to become good. To reach "eudaimonia", or in Greek, "happiness" or "flourishing" - You are consistently improving, a day-to-day process until you reach your full potential
So for VE, we have to focus on how to be a good person first, then right action follows effortlessly.
What is required to achieve Eudaimonia?
To achieve Eudaimonia, two concepts are central in virtue ethics: virtue and practical wisdom
What is virtue?
Virtue is the balance [middle ground] that separates excess and deficiency.
Aristotle defined virtue as “a disposition engendered in us through practice or habituation.” It is a trait or character being developed to a person.
Ex. Humility is the middle point between arrogance and self-deprecating
What kind of lifestyle leads to eudaimonia?
A modest lifestyle leads to eudaimonia or a life of flourishing. Ethics is concerned about modesty - not only about what is right and wrong - living a moderate and balanced life.
Deficiency and Excessiveness are characteristics of being immature.
What is practical wisdom?
For Aristotle, practical wisdom is the capacity to “recognize.” It is knowing what specific action is required on a particular moment. In other words, it is about being prudent; able to judge correctly how and what proper responses are needed all the time.
Simply, it is knowing and doing the right action in the right place at the right time.
Summarize Virtue Ethics
Virtue ethics focuses more on the formation of human character through the exercise of “virtues” or being able to live a balance life.
Virtue Ethics teaches us not to resort to immediate impulse, but learn how to assess the situation and our capacity on responding to it.
Virtue ethics reminds us that to be virtuous humans, being rational is not enough, you must also be a man/woman of emotion and sensitivity. (You must know how to use your heart and mind)
A virtuous person can do things effortlessly, because it is already part of your nature; your act is a way of life.
Morality in virtue ethics is being the best person you can be, continuously improving your character.
What is the positive side and negative side of virtue ethics?
Positive side of Virtue Ethics: It focuses on the character of the person; the totality of the individual and what it means to be human.
Negative side of Virtue Ethics: No clear guidelines on what to do in moral dilemmas. Some virtues are relative to people and culture.
What are the four kinds of law?
Eternal law
Natural law
Human law
Divine law
What is law?
Thomas Aquinas defines law as the ordinance of reason to direct our action towards its “telos” end - the standard of our actions to judge whether it is right or wrong.
[Law] is the rule and primary measure of human acts decided upon by reason. (It must be well-thought and rational)
What is eternal law?
Eternal law is based on the notion that “the entire universe is governed by a universal reason.” That is, the whole universe operates according to an order in nature that is beyond time. In other words, it is the wisdom of God which man cannot know. It is the Law of the universe or the innate program in all creation that humans should not mess with.
it is directly addressed to the environment or universe. An example of this is the law of aerodynamics, law of gravity, and 3 laws of motion.
What is natural law?
Natural law is the innate human ability to know what is naturally right. Directly addressed to our body. Our human body has its own intelligent design, and we ought to respect the natural cycles occurring in our body to fulfill the natural law. This is the kind of law that people use to argue against the use of contraception, divorce, and death penalty.
An example of meddling with natural law is committing suicide.
What is the other perspective of natural law according to Thomas Aquinas?
Other perspective:
A portion of eternal law that directly pertains to people, as Thomas Aquinas , “the natural law is nothing else than a rational being’s participation in the eternal law.” It is called natural because human beings are inherently rational, oriented towards “goodness” (Telos end).
According to Aquinas, even if you are not educated, you don’t know the Bible, and you don’t know the law, you can still live an ethical life because innately as human beings, we are rational. Our rationality is directed towards the fulfillment of the basic precepts of natural law:
(1) Preservation of life and family - instinctual mechanisms to protect life
(2) Maintaining peace and order in society - Just war, engaging in war only to defend the country
(3) Pursuit of truth - We are natural inquirers and searchers for truth. That's why education is a right and not a privilege. Coz it's one way to search for truth.
What is human law?
Human Law refers to the rules and statutes crafted by the state [government]. It is derived from the general principles of natural law. So it is by human reason that national and local laws were conceived but in this state of law, you are acting no longer in the context of conscience, but of moral duty.
What is Divine Law?
Divine Law mainly came from the divine revelation found in scriptures. Its main function, as per Aquinas, is to direct us towards our supernatural [spiritual] end. So, like morality, it is only applicable to a specific group of people, usually a religion.
What are the types of Consequentialist Ethics?
Personal Consequentialism - Applicable only to an individual
Egoism
Hedonism
Universal Consquentialism - benefits the whole community
Utilitarianism
Can be either Personal or Universal Consequentialism:
Ascetism
Altruism
Rule Consequentialism
Negative Consequentialism
What is Consequentialism/Teleological Ethics?
Consequentialism or Teleological Ethics states that the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the outcome of an action regardless of the means.
An action is morally right if it produces a good consequence even if the means is in nature evil.
Main principle: The end justifies the means
What is Egoism?
Egoism is an ethical theory which holds than an action is morally right if it maximizes the good only for the self.
An action is right as long as it benefits your self-interest.
This ethical practice poses a threat to the general welfare of the people.
What is Hedonism? How does it differ from Egoism?
Hedonism is an ethical theory which holds that an action is morally right if it maximizes pleasure. *Related to carnal desire and concupiscence.
The more you lessen suffering by seeking pleasure, the better.
The main difference between Egoism and Hedonism is that, for Hedonism, the ultimate pursuit of mankind is to seek pleasure. A hedonistic action is always egoistic, but not all egoistic action is hedonistic.
Ex. Egoistic: Athlete training for a competition
Hedonistic: An gamer who locks himself in his room only playing pc games for 12 hours.
What is Utilitarianism?
Utilitarianism judges the morality of action on the basis of happiness [general welfare] of the people.
The more happiness and satisfaction you bring to the people, the better. The lesser, the better as well.
Ex. The majority of your family members want to eat to jollibee, but you want Mcdo. You give way coz the majority is in favor of Jabi.
What is Ascetism?
Ascetism is the opposite of egoism. It is the ethical practice observed by monks. This ethical theory holds that an action is morally right if one is able to practice abstinence or control over one’s sensual pleasure.
The more disciplined you are on your worldly desires, the better.
Ex. Celibacy
What is Altruism?
Altruism is an ethical theory which holds that an action is morally right if you intend the best consequence of an action to benefit everyone else except you.
Main priniciple: to live and die for others
Ex. A father working hard to finance the education of his children
There is a feeling of satisfaction even though you did not benefit from the action.
What is Rule Consequentialism?
An ethical principle that reconciles the Ethics of Deontology and Consequentialism.
Here, there are certain rules prescribed which are carefully chosen to be applied on a specific situation to determine a positive outcome.
This ethical theory is usually only applicable to a few specific situations involving few specific people. For example, being an undercover agent.
An action is considered morally right if it is aligned to the fulfillment of a specific goal.
What is Negative Consequentialism?
Negative Consequentialism is the opposite of Rule Consequentialism. This ethical theory judges an action based on how much an agent is able to minimize the negative effects of the action they perform.
The focus is on lessening the bad effects rather than on promoting good consequences. This requires active intervention from authorities because it usually involves a large population of people.
Ex. Climate change policy - to reduce the negative effects of climate change, policies and projects are created such as the banning of the use of CFCs, and encouraging people to change their mode of transportation. This will only reduce the negative outcomes rather than produce positive outcomes.
What is Deontological Ethics?
Deontological Ethics is the opposite of Consequentialism. It came from the Greek term Deon, meaning “duty”. It is focused on the nature of the action.
It judges the morality of action based on how the agent (doer) observes his/her duty. Right action through the performance of duty has more weight than happiness.
Main principle: The end does not justify the means → “do the action not in anticipation of happiness as an end result, but because it is the right thing to do, out of duty.”
The process is more important than the result.
The kind of ethical theory adapted by democratic countries.
What is the grounding principle [foundation] of deontological ethics to be morally valid?
The law of universality
The law of humanity as end-in-itself
The law of autonomy
What is Categorical Imperative?
Categorical Imperative is a kind of deontological ethics developed by Immanuel Kant (a German Philosopher). It emphasizes the rationality of every human; a factor that is internal to him/her, and not external - meaning, you don't need religion to determine what law is, because what's right and wrong is totally knowable just by using your intellect/rationality.
It is the opposite of hypothetical imperative which is dependent on one’s desire. (optional). Categorical imperative is something unconditional, an action that you have to follow all the time; regardless of your desire, it is true at all circumstances.
The binding principle is REASON.
In categorical Imperative, to consider an action as morally right, it must be done out of goodwill. You will an act, you have full consent of it, not coerced.
What are the 3 formulas of Categorical Imperatives?
Act only to the maxim through which you can and at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of the other, never simply as a means but at the same as an ends.
Act in such a will in us as can at the same time look upon itself as making universal law.
Explain the Law of Universizability.
Act only to the maxim through which you can and at the same time will that it should become a universal law. → an action is only morally acceptable if it could be universally applied (Law of Universizability)
Explain the Law of Humanity as end-in-itself.
Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of the other, never simply as a means but at the same as an ends. → most of the time, we use other people as a means for something, but not as a mere means. We still recognize their humanity when we use them, and they agree to being used. (Law of Humanity as an end-in-itself)
Explain the Law of Autonomy.
Act in such a will in us as can at the same time look upon itself as making universal law. → Unlike other things in the world, we're self-governed. We're able to set our own ends to make our own free decisions based on our rational wills. This imbues us with an absolute moral worth. (Law of Autonomy)
What is the result of the proper application of Categorical imperative?
Kant argued that proper, rational application of the categorical imperative will lead us to moral truth that is fixed and applicable to all moral agents.
What are the two types of altruism?
Communal Altruism - All members of a specific group agree to sacrifice themselves for the benefit of another group.
Ex. A group of soldiers sacrifice their lives to protect the country
Personal Altruism - An individual agrees to sacrifice himself for the benefit of the people.
Ex.
What is Hypethetical Imperative?
an action is conditional to our desires (optional). They're commands that you should follow if you want something.
If-then statements
About prudence rather than morality
Ex. If you want good grades, then you should study hard
Note 
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